The Song of Roland

Like all works of epic poetry (See: Literary Devices), The Song of Roland’s main concern is establishing French identity and nationhood. Roland develops ideas of French heroism and honor through the figures of King Charlemagne and Roland, his nephew. These characters’ virtues infuse Roland’s narrative with a sense of right and wrong, and work to both celebrate and justify Charlemagne’s expansion into Spain. The poem’s bolstering of Charlemagne’s empire is hyperbolic, falsifying the empire’s borders so that it encompasses all of Europe. The poem’s speaker presents Charlemagne’s invasion as divinely inspired. As angels and other divine beings fight alongside Charlemagne’s army, the poem assures listeners that Charlemagne is the rightful ruler of Spain and the rest of Europe by divine provenance. Meanwhile, the speaker represents the attacking Saracens as disconnected from divine aid.

Roland places attention on the heroic deeds and virtuous behavior of its two main heroes, Roland and Charlemagne. While these characters are based on real, historical figures, the poet embellishes history to glorify the Franks and their deeds. Some of these embellishments, such as the Saracens’ repeated claim that Charlemagne “is over two hundred years old” (Lines 524, 539, 552), appear morally benign. However, these overstatements work with others in the poem to paint Roland and Charlemagne as superhuman heroes. The speaker singles Charlemagne out for his deference to tradition and his connection with the divine. Charlemagne calls Ganelon “the living devil” (Line 746) for appointing Roland to the rearguard but reinforces cultural norms by respecting Roland’s commitment to his stepfather. During Ganelon’s trial, Charlemagne calls those who defend Ganelon “traitors” (Line 3814) but stays within the bounds of due process. Similarly, when Charlemagne’s divine visions tell him that “France will be destroyed by Ganelon” (Line 835), Charlemagne offers Roland more of his army, rather than countermanding Ganelon’s orders. While Charlemagne’s decisions might seem foolish, the poem argues that his submission to cultural norms makes him a great, respected king. Instead of prioritizing his own gains, Charlemagne cares for his army. This trait is so obvious that even Ganelon admits that “God has made so much valour shine forth from [Charlemagne] / That he would rather die than forsake his men” (Lines 535-36).

Roland demonstrates a similar regard for propriety when disagreeing with Charlemagne and Marsile’s original peace proposal. Roland states that Charlemagne “will regret it” (Line 196) but maintains the hierarchy between himself and his king. Roland’s adherence to a chivalric code (See: Themes), however, is weak compared to his superhuman courage. Roland is eager to face the Saracens in battle: He is “prepared to go” (Line 254) and deliver the message, which Oliver assumes means that he will “pick a quarrel” (Line 257). Roland’s ability to dispatch his enemies and his refusal to “blow [his] horn” (Line 1051) in response to the “huge army of pagans” (Line 1049) coming toward the rearguard showcase his superhuman stamina and military might. None of the Saracen attackers are able to match Roland’s strength, and the hero dies as he “Sounds his oliphant in great agony” (Line 1785). Even after liquefying his own brain from the force of his lungs, Roland fights “full of grief and overcome with rage” (Line 2056).

As its hero dies, The Song of Roland also includes details of Roland’s previous exploits. After fending off a Saracen who tries to steal the dying hero’s sword, Roland considers how “With it [he] conquered Scotland and Ireland / And England” (Lines 2331-32). The historical Charlemagne never actually conquered England, but this fictionally extended list of the empire’s victories reinforces the poem’s characterization of Charlemagne and Roland as legendary heroes. Charlemagne, in fact, appears to have complete dominion over all Christian kingdoms. The 10 military divisions Charlemagne summons between Laisses 220 and 227 attest to this European dominance (See: Themes).

Part of Charlemagne’s and Roland’s heroism results from divine aid. The narrative recounts a number of “angelic vision[s]” (Line 836) that the Christian God gives Charlemagne, including one instructing him to give Roland his famous sword Durendal. Charlemagne’s divine connection extends to the battlefield as well. Prior to his engaging the Saracens, an angel appears to Charlemagne and tells him to “ride on, daylight will not fail you” (Line 2454). When the Saracen warrior Baligant strikes him, God intervenes by sending “Saint Gabriel” (Line 3610) to Charlemagne’s side because God “did not want [Charlemagne] to be slain” (Line 3609). These interventions likely explain Charlemagne’s long life and demonstrate his divine right to rule over Christian Europe. They might also explain why “There is no castle which can resist him” (Line 4).

Many plot points in Roland depend on similar divine interventions. When Thierry challenges Pinabel to combat to prove Ganelon’s guilt, “God protects [Thierry] from being cast down dead” (Line 3923) in the middle of the fight. Similarly, God intervenes by preventing “a wound to [Oliver’s] body” (Line 1313) during the ambush. The poem contrasts these clear interventions with the relative inefficacy of the Saracens’ polytheistic faith to argue for the rightness of Charlemagne’s desire to convert the Saracens to Christianity. The poem introduces the Saracens by stating that King Marsile “serves Muhammad and calls upon Apollo. / He cannot prevent disaster from overtaking him” (Lines 8-9). The Saracens’ confused religious affiliations—Muhammad is an Islamic prophet, while Apollo is from the Greek pantheon—doom them to failure. Marsile’s wife, Bramimonde, demonstrates this best when she rails against her gods, saying, “Anyone who serves you well receives a poor reward” (Line 2584).

The relative activity of the Christian deity in Roland demonstrates that this belief system is true—and that Charlemagne’s realm is the rightful kingdom of heaven. The poem’s conflict ends with images of religious conversion: Charlemagne and his army “take the pagans up to the baptistery” (Line 3668), where they baptize “More than a hundred thousand” (Line 3671) and kill the rest. The poem is largely unsympathetic to ideas of religious tolerance, in keeping with early modern European ideas. Its intolerance reflects the poet’s time period and Christian Europeans’ general demonization of non-Christians. The medieval conception of heroism differs from that of ancient or contemporary periods, but Roland proved an invaluable keystone in European identity during the Middle Ages.