The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650 - 1815

The dynamics of Indigenous agency and resilience during early encounters with Europeans were shaped by a complex interplay of power, trade dependencies, and governance systems. Algonquians, particularly those engaged in the fur trade, initially held significant control over the situation. The Algonquians’ access to the coveted beaver furs granted them economic leverage: As suppliers of a valuable commodity, Indigenous groups could dictate the terms of trade, influencing the dynamics between the two parties. The French, dependent on the Indigenous peoples for fur resources, were compelled to engage in mutually beneficial trade relationships.

Indigenous governance systems differed significantly from those of the Europeans. The Iroquois concept of Onontio (the Iroquois name for the French governors) is an example of how these differences in approach shaped interactions. Indigenous leaders were expected to act as supporters, offering advice, protection, and resources to those in their communities. Attempts by Europeans to impose systems of subordination were always met with resistance from the Algonquians. Accustomed to their own governance systems, they rejected European attempts to enforce hierarchical structures. Their idea of paternalism, rooted in respect and cooperation, clashed with European notions of dominance. Whether an alliance worked or failed depended on the European power’s willingness to follow the paternal model and use gifting practices. White summarizes this as:

Because Indians conceptualized exchange in terms of the generosity of a father to his children, they did not complain if he became more generous. They only complained when he became less so (148-49).

As colonization in the pays d’en haut progressed, this alliance with the Algonquians was often the deciding force in determining who had more power in the region. The British, in particular, sought alliances with Indigenous nations, realizing that these partnerships could tip the balance of power in their favor. This caused the French, whose policies had grown lax due to the expense, to attempt to salvage their alliances. It failed, and the British took control.

As European imperial powers sought to extend their control over the region, Indigenous groups faced the direct threat of displacement, loss of autonomy, and cultural assimilation. In response, several attempts were made to resist. One notable instance was Pontiac’s Rebellion in 1763, a response to the British attempt to encroach further into Algonquian territory. The rebellion showcased a coordinated effort to repel European forces, and Algonquian groups that had previously competed found a common cause in this opposition. The cultural movement accompanying Algonquian military resistance came from Neolin, who spearheaded a spiritual and cultural revival. His teachings emphasized a rejection of European influences and a return to traditional Indigenous ways of life. Pontiac and Neolin set the stage for another significant moment of Indigenous resistance in the early 19th century. This time, it was against American expansionism and led by the Shawnee brothers Tecumseh, a charismatic military leader, and Tenskwatawa, a visionary prophet. Each instance of this resistance laid the groundwork for the emergence of a “pan-Indian” identity that attempted to transcend tribal differences and to ground itself in the shared experience of resisting external European pressure. Tenskwatawa's religious movement echoed Neolin's emphasis on rejecting European influences and revitalizing traditional culture.

The Algonquian response to the threat of imperial powers in the pays d’en haut was characterized by military and cultural resistance. Rather than being passive victims of colonization, the Algonquian tribes actively shaped their destinies through strategic alliances and negotiations with European powers. Ultimately, they lost this control during the War of 1812. At this point:

Politically the consequence of Indians faded. They could no longer pose a major threat or be a major asset to an empire or a republic, and even their economic consequence declined with the fur trade (548).

With all their options for negotiation gone, they were ultimately displaced or assimilated as the United States pushed its borders westward.