The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650 - 1815

Pontiac (c. 1720-1769) was a prominent leader of the Ottawa and a key figure in the Indigenous American resistance against European colonization. In the aftermath of the Seven Years’ War, the British, now in control of large amounts of territory, sought to assert authority over Indigenous American inhabitants. Discontent and concern spread among the Algonquians of the pays d’en haut regarding British policies, such as those regarding land encroachments. Pontiac, recognizing the threat of these policies, took a stance against the colonial expansion. His leadership united a diverse group of tribes in the pays d’en haut to resist British dominance. What followed is now known as Pontiac's Rebellion, beginning in 1763. Despite initial successes, the war faced challenges, including divisions within the Algonquian coalition and the reluctance of some tribes to fully commit to the conflict. The British responded with military force and eventually quelled the uprising. The conflict formally concluded with the signing of treaties in 1766. Pontiac's increased prominence as a result of this treaty led him to assume powers beyond his role as a chief. As a result, his village no longer recognized him and cast him out. He was assassinated in 1769 by a Peoria man avenging his uncle, whom Pontiac had attacked several years prior.

Nicolas Perrot (1644–1717) was a French explorer of the pays d’en haut, trader, and diplomat. Perrot's early years in North America were shaped by the fur trade. His interactions with the Indigenous American peoples of the pays d’en haut provided him with valuable insights into their cultures, languages, and social structures. Perrot became a key intermediary between French traders and Algonquian communities, and his diplomatic efforts helped secure French influence in the interior of North America. Perrot's ability to navigate the intricate relationships among different tribes and maintain peaceful trade relations contributed significantly to the prosperity of the French colonial enterprise. Perrot's exploration extended to the Mississippi Valley, where he ventured along the river and engaged with indigenous groups such as the Illinois and Miami. His expeditions provided the French with valuable geographic knowledge and expanded their understanding of the North American continent. Nicolas Perrot's legacy is intertwined with the broader narrative of French exploration and trade in the interior regions of North America. His contributions to diplomatic relations and insights into the Algonquian cultures remain significant aspects of early colonial history.

General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) was a British military officer and a key commander in the British campaign during the Seven Years’ War. His strategic and leadership abilities were showcased in the capture of the French strongholds of Louisbourg in 1758 and Quebec in 1759. The fall of Quebec marked a turning point in the conflict, ultimately leading to French withdrawal from Canada. He was subsequently appointed the Commander-in-Chief of British forces in North America. His policies were often characterized by his lack of understanding of and respect for Indigenous American populations. His imposition of British authority often displayed deliberate antagonism and cruelty towards Indigenous American populations. He is alleged to have gifted “Amherst blankets,” deliberately contaminated with smallpox, to infect Indigenous communities. During Amherst's tenure as Commander-in-Chief, Pontiac's Rebellion (1763) broke out, which was the direct result of British encroachments on Indigenous American lands and autonomy. While Amherst played a significant role in securing Canada for the British, his handling of Indigenous American affairs contributed to rising tensions and conflicts in the pays d’en haut in the years leading up to the American Revolution.

Tecumseh (1768-1813) was a Shawnee leader and the brother of Tenskwatawa. Together, they served as central players in the resistance to American encroachment. Tecumseh's early years were shaped by the realities of colonial expansion and its impact on the Indigenous communities of the pays d’en haut. He witnessed the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774, where his father was killed, an event that may have fueled his later commitment to resisting the United States. As a young warrior, Tecumseh gained recognition for his prowess in battle and leadership abilities. The turning point in Tecumseh's life came in the early 1800s when he and his brother Tenskwatawa began to advocate for a “pan-Indian” alliance to resist further land cessions. Tenskwatawa's religious movement, which emphasized a return to traditional practices, complemented Tecumseh's political vision. Together, they sought to unite the various tribes of the pays d’en haut into a confederation against American territorial ambitions. Tecumseh was charismatic and diplomatic. He traveled to build alliances and convince those he met to join the confederation. Tecumseh's efforts gained traction and attracted followers who saw him as a leader capable of preserving their autonomy. The apex of this resistance came during the War of 1812, when he allied with the British against the United States. He played a crucial role in several battles, earning admiration from Indigenous American and British allies. However, despite initial successes, the tide turned against them, and Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813. In the aftermath, he was mythologized as a folk hero, and his complexities were primarily lost in favor of turning him into a “noble savage” archetype for white audiences.

Tenskwatawa (1775-1836) was the brother of Tecumseh, and together, they served as leaders in the Algonquian resistance to the expansion of the United States. In the early 1800s, Tenskwatawa claimed to have received a vision that led him to become a religious leader and initiate a movement to revitalize traditional Indigenous American cultural practices. His message emphasized a rejection of the influences of European culture and an urging for Algonquian communities to resist assimilation. His religious movement gained momentum and attracted followers from various tribes disillusioned by European colonization’s impact on their lives. One of the main aspects of Tenskwatawa’s teachings was the rejection of the accommodationist policies advocated by some Native leaders. He opposed the cession of land to the United States through treaties and argued for a collective effort among the tribes to reclaim their ancestral territories. His influence peaked with the establishment of a new settlement called Prophetstown (Tippecanoe). The settlement became a hub for cultural and spiritual revival and Indigenous American resistance. He and his brother continued to recruit those sympathetic to their cause and brought them to Prophetstorn, which became increasingly militant. However, in 1811, tensions escalated between them and the United States, which led to the Battle of Tippecanoe. The conflict destroyed Prophetstown and dealt a blow to Tenskwatawa’s influence. Despite this setback, he played a role during the War of 1812, aligning with the British against the United States. Tenskwatawa’s legacy is complex. He was a charismatic religious leader who inspired a cultural and spiritual renaissance among the Indigenous communities of the pays d’en haut. However, his doctrines were radical, almost to the point of fanaticism.

Sir William Johnson (1715–1774) initially gained recognition for his success in the fur trade, establishing himself as a trader and landowner in the Mohawk Valley. Johnson allied with the Iroquois Confederacy, particularly the Mohawk people, and became an honorary chief because of his support of them. The rapport between himself and the Iroquois was instrumental in his diplomatic efforts. Johnson's ability to negotiate with Indigenous Americans, especially the Iroquois, was essential in securing their support for the British against the French during the Seven Years’ War. In 1755, the British appointed him as Superintendent of Indian Affairs. Johnson also played a significant role in shaping British colonial policies. Following the French and Indian War, Johnson continued to be involved in Indigenous American affairs and colonial politics. His efforts to maintain peace, however, faced challenges. He and Amherst clashed on their approaches to dealing with Indigenous Americans, and he was one of the most prominent voices to lobby for Amherst’s removal from the position of Commander-in-Chief. Johnson was also responsible for negotiating a treaty with Pontiac to end the war in 1766. While Johnson is admired for his contributions to British and Indigenous American relations, his involvement in land transactions and the broader imperial context of his activities caused fractures in his attempts at diplomacy.

Peter Chartier (1690—c.1759), also known as Pierre Chartier, was a Métis fur trader of Shawnee and French descent. In his early career, Chartier played a crucial role as an interpreter and negotiator, bridging the cultural gap between the English and Indigenous American tribes in the Ohio Valley. He eventually became a leader among the Shawnee. In the early 1700s, alcohol abuse severely affected Indigenous American communities, leading Chartier to work towards restrictions on the sale and trade of alcohol. Due to conflicts with the English provincial government, Chartier accepted a French commission in 1745 and led his band, consisting of over 400 Pekowi Shawnee, on a migration through parts of modern Ohio, Kentucky, Alabama, and Tennessee. During the French and Indian War, Chartier and some of his warriors fought on the side of the French against the English. Chartier's efforts to control the rum trade and his alliance with the French led to tensions with the Pennsylvania government. He faced accusations of treason and rebellion. Despite ongoing conflicts, Chartier resisted British dominance and sought autonomy for his band. Evidence suggests that he may have died in an outbreak of smallpox around 1759.

George Rogers Clark (1752-1818) was a surveyor who gained military experience as an officer during Lord Dunmore's War in 1774, becoming a military leader during the American Revolutionary War. In 1778 and 1779, Clark led successful campaigns against British and Indigenous American forces, securing key victories at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes. His military victories solidified American control over the region and expanded the western boundary of the United States. Clark was openly hostile to Indigenous Americans, partly due to their resistance to allowing the Americans to occupy the pays d’en haut. His tendency toward antagonism proved to be his downfall: His final attempt to attack the Wabash ended with his men mutinying, forcing him to negotiate a ceasefire. Following rumors that further tarnished his reputation, he withdrew from military leadership and left Kentucky altogether to settle on the frontier across the Ohio River.

Neolin was a Lenni Lenape (also Delaware) prophet and a pivotal figure in the socio-political landscape of the 18th-century pays d'en haut. His spiritual and political ideologies influenced Algonquian responses to European colonization. In the aftermath of the Seven Years' War, the encroachment of European settlers, loss of territory, and the impact of disease took a heavy toll on the Algonquian communities of the pays d’en haut. Neolin responded to these challenges with his teachings, which emphasized a return to traditional spirituality and the rejection of European influences. He advocated for the removal of vices associated with European trade, including alcohol and materialism. His vision offered a spiritual framework for resistance and resilience in the face of colonial pressure. Central to his message was the idea of Indigenous American unity. He envisioned a collective effort by various Indigenous nations to resist European encroachments and reclaim their autonomy. While many details of Neolin's life are unknown, his spiritual teachings left a legacy in the pays d’en haut. One prominent advocate of his ideas was Pontiac, who sought unification against British colonial forces.