The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650 - 1815

In the context of Indigenous American and colonial relations, especially during the fur trade, bon marché (French for “good deal”) represented a system of economic exchange characterized by fair trade practices, reciprocity, and mutually beneficial transactions between Europeans and Indigenous peoples. French traders exchanged various goods, such as metal tools, textiles, and firearms, for furs obtained by Algonquian hunters. The emphasis was on establishing a fair and mutually advantageous market where both parties benefitted. The bon marché required respect for Algonquian customs. However, as the fur trade expanded and European powers sought to maximize profits, pressure on the Algonquians to acquire more furs increased, often at the expense of sustainable hunting practices and the wellbeing of Indigenous communities.

“Calumet” is used in the book to refer to a ceremonial pipe with cultural symbolic significance among various Indigenous peoples of North America. This term is short for calumet de paix meaning “peace pipe” in French and is a European designation. Different types of ceremonial pipes are part of various Indigenous cultures and their use, significance, and material differ between cultures, as do their specific names. The act of smoking the calumet is a communal and spiritual practice meant to foster unity and peace. While specific designs, materials, and rituals associated with the calumet vary between tribes, its core symbolism remains consistent. Beyond its role in a religious and spiritual context, the calumet also holds importance in diplomacy and intertribal relations. Historically, it was used in negotiations, particularly during times of peace or when forming alliances. The exchange of the calumet was a symbolic gesture signifying trust and goodwill. Europeans also adopted the custom of using the calumet in diplomatic interactions. As a result, it played a key role in interactions between the Indigenous nations and European colonists.

The coureurs du bois or "runners of the woods" was a group of French-Canadian fur traders active in the pays d’en haut during the 17th and 18th centuries. They were independent and operated outside of established colonial structures. They adapted to the lifestyles of the Indigenous peoples with whom they traded. Many formed relationships with women belonging to these tribes, creating familial ties that played a role in trade. Despite operating in a legally gray area, the coureurs du bois played a crucial role in expanding French influence in the interior of North America. They acted as intermediaries between the Indigenous American peoples and European markets. Over time, as the European powers in the region sought to control the fur trade more closely, the influence of the coureurs du bois waned.

Covering or raising the dead were methods used by Algonquian communities used to settle murders committed between allies. While the Europeans preferred to seek retributive justice against those who committed murder, Algonquin justice instead tended to use a system of ritualized compensation for the kin of the deceased individual. To “cover” the dead meant to give the family an economic compensation of goods. To “raise” the dead meant to provide them with a literal replacement for the deceased in the form of a captive. The emphasis of this system was on ensuring that peace was maintained rather than seeking punishment, as it was thought retribution would lead to a continuation of bloodshed. The difference between Algonquin and European forms of justice frequently caused tension and conflict.

“Iroquois” refers to a prominent confederacy of First Nation peoples. The original confederacy, called the “League of Five Nations,” was comprised of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The confederacy's establishment is traditionally attributed to Deganawida, a Huron prophet, and Hiawatha, an Iroquois orator. According to legend, they persuaded the five nations to unite for mutual defense and cooperation. In the early 18th century, the Tuscarora Nation joined the confederacy, transforming it into the “League of Six Nations.” The Iroquois became a powerful force in the politics of the pays d’en haut and were sought after as strategic allies in conflicts such as the Beaver Wars and the French and Indian War. For the majority of The Middle Ground, they are presented as an antagonistic force to the Algonquians and the two groups are largely defined in contrast to one another.

In the Algonquian belief system, the manitou represents a fundamental life force or spiritual power within all living and inanimate things. Manitou is not a deity in the conventional sense, but rather a pervasive, animating force that binds everything together. The term is also used to describe specific spirits or supernatural beings. Rituals, ceremonies, and practices were designed to honor and communicate with these spiritual forces, seeking guidance, protection, and a balance between the physical and metaphysical realms. The concept changed once the Algonquians came into contact with the Europeans and were introduced to Christianity. Post-contact, it was a term they sometimes used as a translation for the Christian concept of “God.” While the term “manitou” originates in Algonquian languages, variations of similar concepts exist among other Indigenous cultures throughout North America.

“Métis” refers to the descendants of Algonquian women by European settlers, primarily French or Scottish fur traders. This blending of Indigenous and European ancestry created a new and distinct community during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Métis played a crucial role in the fur trade economy, often serving as intermediaries between European traders and Algonquian communities. Their distinctive cultural group developed a fusion of European and Indigenous American customs, languages, and lifestyles. The Métis people evolved into a cohesive and independent community with its own governance structures. Despite their contributions to shaping the North American frontier, the Métis faced many challenges, including discrimination and marginalization. As European settlers expanded westward, Métis lands were often subject to encroachment and dispossession, leading to conflicts and tensions.

Onontio, a term from the Huron-Wendat language, was a title adopted by Algonquians and Iroquois of the pays d’en haut as a form of address for the French colonial governor. It derives from a translation (meaning “Big Mountain”) of the name of an early governor, Montagny. The governor was the French king’s official representative in New France, and the commander of military forces. He also the leader of diplomatic relations with Indigenous people and other colonial powers in the region. The role of Onontio carried significant symbolic and ritualistic weight in Indigenous and French relations. Onontio engaged in gift-giving ceremonies, establishing and maintaining alliances with the indigenous nations. These ceremonies often included the exchange of wampum belts, tobacco, and other symbolic items. Unlike the more coercive approaches of the other European powers, the French sought to establish collaborative relationships with the Indigenous American nations. In this sense, Onontio symbolized the mediator and protector who worked to maintain harmony and stability in the region. The French pursued imperial objectives, including the control of the fur trade, through these alliances.

The pays d'en haut, French for “upper country,” refers to a historical region in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was originally part of New France and covered the Great Lakes region. There, French explorers, fur traders, and missionaries established trade alliances with the Algonquian inhabitants and exploited the fur-bearing animal populations, especially beavers. The pays d'en haut was strategically crucial for economic and geopolitical reasons, which led to the establishment of numerous trading posts and forts in the area. These outposts served as hubs for fur trade activities and as centers for diplomatic negotiations between the French and Algonquians. Over time, France, Britain, and later the United States, vied for control of the pays d'en haut, leading to a series of wars in the region. Ultimately, the region's importance diminished as European powers established more control in North America, and the fur trade declined.