The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650 - 1815

Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1991

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Summary

Background

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Introduction

Chapters 1-2

Chapters 3-5

Chapters 6-8

Chapters 9-10

Chapter 11-Epilogue

Key Figures

Themes

Index of Terms

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

Tools

Beta

Discussion Questions

Background

Historical Context: The Pays D’en Haut

The Middle Ground focuses on the pays d’en haut, a critical geographical area in the fur trade and colonial competition of North America from 1650 to 1815. Meaning “upper country” in French, this region was a territory of France’s empire in North America, covering the regions west of Montreal. The pays d’en haut was established in 1610 as a dependency of Canada. In 1763, both Canada and the pays d’en haut were ceded to the British in the Treaty of Paris and became the Province of Quebec.

Throughout the 17th century, the area became a crucial theater for interactions between Indigenous peoples, French settlers, and later, British and American colonists. In the mid-17th century, the French established a presence in the pays d'en haut for the fur trade, which was lucrative due to the high demand in Europe for beaver pelts used in the production of hats. French traders, missionaries, and explorers ventured into this territory, engaging with various Algonquian-speaking nations. Cities like Quebec and Montreal served as hubs for the fur network. Frenchmen such as Nicolas Perrot played essential roles in navigating trade and diplomatic relationships with Indigenous residents. During this period, the French sought to create alliances with the Algonquian people. The dynamics of the pays d'en haut shifted with the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), also known as the French and Indian War, after which the pays d'en haut was ceded to the British, The British implemented policies such as the Royal Proclamation of 1763, attempting to regulate westward expansion, but many settlers ignored this and sparked resistance and conflict with Indigenous people. Hostilities increased during the American Revolution, culminating in the war of 1812. Algonquian and Iroquois groups fought with the British, who were outnumbered, against the Americans. Indigenous warriors were unused to European-style warfare and the British and Indigenous alliance was defeated. The United States had acquired control over the area, and the era of autonomy for Indigenous peoples in the region came to a close. The fur trade declined, and the pays d'en haut was integrated into the expanding American frontier.

Critical Context: The Middle Ground

The Middle Ground is regarded as a groundbreaking work of research into the history of the Indigenous cultures of the pays d'en haut. White's analyses are rooted in his rejection of traditional historical dichotomies and the reexamination of historical events through cultural interaction, adaptation, and negotiation. One of his central critiques is directed at the binary frameworks characterizing Indigenous-European relations, such as conqueror and conquered, civilized and savage, or assimilator and assimilated. Instead, he introduces the concept of the middle ground, a space where different cultures can interact without one dominating the other. This perspective challenges the traditional narrative of European conquest and Indigenous victimhood, highlighting the agency of Indigenous peoples. White recognizes the complexity and fluidity of cultural encounters, moving away from portrayals which have become fixed over time. White contends that Indigenous people were not passive recipients of European influence, but active participants in cultural convergence. He emphasizes the adaptability and agency of both groups in constructing a shared, albeit temporary, space. Furthermore, he challenges the Eurocentric bias that often permeates historical interpretations by acknowledging Algonquian perspectives and contributions.

The Middle Ground has strongly influenced historical research in its field. The concept of the middle ground that White poses is rooted in the specific interactions between the groups interacting on the pays d’en haut. Since its publication in 1991, some researchers have questioned White’s approach, arguing that he unifies disparate cultural groups under umbrella terms and sometimes leans towards overlooking French violence in favor of a focus on mediation. Despite this, The Middle Ground remains a seminal work on Indigenous and Colonial interactions. While terminology and approaches in the field have altered significantly since The Middle Ground was published in 1991, the work marks a step-change in the historiographical treatment of American history studies, especially in its acknowledgement of the agency and influence of Indigenous American people.