The Gift

Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1923

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Summary

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Introduction-Part 1

Part 2

Part 3

Conclusion

Key Figures

Themes

Index of Terms

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

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Discussion Questions

Themes

There Is No Such Thing as a Free Gift

Gifts are a form of communication and intent, with the receipt of a gift necessitating reciprocation. Mauss first establishes that there are no free gifts across national and cultural boundaries: “Roman, Germanic, and other Indo-European laws all show signs of the basic principles. There are no free gifts; gift cycles engage persons in permanent commitments that articulate the dominant institutions” (xii).

In Japan, even gifting money to newlyweds is fraught with tradition and expectation. The gift giver does not simply wire the money to the gift receiver’s bank account, nor do they place said monies into a manila envelope. The money is carefully prepared in a box and then wrapped, with special attention to preparation. What kind of paper the gifter uses and what kind of string, ribbon or bows adorn it are all part of the statement of intent behind the gift. Despite the amount of money inside, the presentation of the gift ensures that its recipients are bound by an unspoken contract. The latter which must be returned in kind later in future, perhaps when they attend the gift giver’s wedding or that of their child’s wedding. Like the tribes that Mauss studied, it is not uncommon for the gift giver to downplay his or her gift. However, this sense of modesty is merely part of the exchange. Likewise, the gift receiver must accept the gift or risk offending the gift giver.

In North America, gifts are exchanged for a variety of reasons. Be it weddings, first communions, the birth of a child, birthdays, and the list goes on. However, this expectation of reciprocity is no less important here than they would be amongst the tribes Mauss studied. Therefore, expectations are often set by gift givers either by purchasing an item for someone else or coming to a verbal contract as to how much one should spend on gifts for one another. (e.g., secret Santa). At its most harmless, gift giving can be benign. At its worst, it can lead to miscommunication, pain, and severe consequences.

The Potlatch as an Economic and Political Force

As Mauss illustrates, the act of reciprocity is both expected and mandatory to maintain relationships, alliances, and peace between tribes. The Potlatch is a process of give and take, if not a force majeure by its very nature. It demands that the gift receiver be on high alert for a war that has been declared upon them, if only symbolically. Failure to reciprocate could very well lead to actual war.

Mauss distinguishes here between commerce and politics. According to Douglas, “commerce and gift are two separate kinds of activity, the first based on exact recompense, the second spontaneous, pure of ulterior motive” (x). It is the latter that concerns Mauss. The motive for the gift could be appeasement, or it could be designed to curate special favors. Alliances make both factions stronger, though traditionally one group almost always benefits more so than the other. Whatever the case may be, the act of gift giving is fraught with meaning, sometimes hidden, sometimes known. Thus, “The potlatch is an example of a total system of giving. […] each gift is part of a system of reciprocity in which the honour of giver and recipient are engaged. It is a total system in that every item of status or of spiritual or material possession is implicated for everyone in the whole community” (xi).

Herein lies the debate between Utilitarianism and Liberalism. For Benjamin Constant, Alexis de Tocqueville, and Larry Siedentrop, English liberalism “first, […] was based on an impoverished concept of the person seen as an independent individual instead of as a social being; second, that it neglected how social relations change with changes in the mode of production; and third, that it had a too negative concept of liberty and so failed to appreciate the moral role of political participation” (xiii - xiv). The ego, or individual, has a place in society only in so much as they are a part of that society. Equally, the individual cannot exist without society just as society cannot exist without the individual. It is here that Mauss determines the importance of utilitarianism in maintaining and developing social bonds.

Gifts Contain Intrinsic Value That Is Spiritual, Symbolic, and Religious

Mauss would argue that the simple act of bartering one thing for another is quite common and holds no special meaning. A fish exchanged for a barrel which contains said fish has no symbolic or intrinsic value per se. However, an item has intrinsic value if it is awarded such significance by the gift giver. The gift must above all else be worthy of receipt just as it must convey to the gift receiver the relevance and importance of the intent behind it. Something that holds spiritual value, for example, is not just a present but a political act.

One of Mauss’s themes is the universality of gift giving across time and space. He demonstrates this by describing gift exchanges amongst the Northwest Coast American Indians, Melanesians, and Polynesians which share cultural similarities. He addresses cultures that are dissimilar by comparing and contrasting what he learns about gift exchange in ancient Roman, Hindu, and Germanic laws. This also demonstrates Mauss’s intent to legitimize cultural anthropology as a means of studying the structure of human society.

In addition, Mauss argues that mutual interests coincide especially where the spiritual, symbolic, and religious are concerned. Drawing once more from Émile Durkheim, Mauss argues that the potlatch is in essence a type of collective effervescence. Thus, gifts that are symbolic of religious effigies are credited with ensuring not only social solidarity but equally, they represent the hau, or the spirit of the thing. The latter determines the honor associated with it and the inherent significance of its importance.

Collective effervescence effectively allows for tribes to celebrate not just their chosen deity but equally themselves as a culture. Contemporary examples of collective effervescence can be found in sports. The worship of and celebration of sports goes beyond the simple pleasures of fandom. Rather, it represents the desire to acknowledge one’s own greatness. The individual represents the tribe and the tribe the individual. A victory for their team is equally his or her victory and is celebrated as such just as a loss represents the failure of a tribe as a whole.