The Double

Fiction | Novella | Adult | Published in 1846

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Summary

Background

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Chapters 1-3

Chapters 4-6

Chapters 7-9

Chapters 10-13

Character Analysis

Themes

Symbols & Motifs

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

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Discussion Questions

Background

Authorial Context: Dostoevsky, Gogol, and Russian Literature

Fyodor Dostoevsky was born on November 11, 1821, in Moscow, Russia, to a family of modest means. His father was a retired military surgeon and his mother descended from a merchant family. Dostoevsky’s parents instilled in him a strong sense of religious faith, which appears throughout his writings. When Dostoevsky was 15, his mother died of tuberculosis. This loss profoundly impacted Dostoevsky, shaping his views on suffering and mortality. After completing his education, Dostoevsky pursued a career in the military. He began writing and publishing his works, including translations of European literature, which exposed him to a wide range of literary influences.

Nikolai Gogol, a pioneering figure in Russian literature, strongly influenced Dostoevsky's literary sensibilities. This influence is particularly evident in The Double, which has been described as both a parody of Gogol’s The Overcoat (1842) and a response to Gogol’s Dead Souls (1842). Gogol's blend of realism, surrealism, and social commentary resonated deeply with Dostoevsky. Gogol's Dead Souls captivated Dostoevsky through its portrayal of Russian society and exploration of moral and existential themes.

Gogol's influence on Dostoevsky's early works is evident in his first novel, Poor Folk (1846), which explores the lives of impoverished communities in Saint Petersburg. Like Gogol, Dostoevsky depicts the struggles of ordinary people with empathetic insight, laying the foundation for his later explorations of the human psyche and moral dilemmas. Gogol's exploration of the grotesque, the absurd, and the mystical are echoed in Dostoevsky’s later works, such as Crime and Punishment (1866) and The Double. Both writers grappled with questions of identity, morality, and the search for meaning in a chaotic and uncertain world.

Dostoevsky's contributions to Russian literature are immense, and his place in its pantheon is firmly established. He is often regarded as one of the greatest psychological novelists, alongside Leo Tolstoy. Dostoevsky's novels are characterized by their deep psychological insight, moral complexity, and philosophical depth. His exploration of the human psyche, particularly in works such as Crime and Punishment and Notes from Underground (1864), laid the foundation for modern psychological literature.

Dostoevsky's protagonists often grapple with inner demons, torn between conflicting impulses of good and evil. Through their struggles, Dostoevsky explores questions about the nature of morality, free will, and the existence of God. Moreover, Dostoevsky's influence extends beyond literature; he was also a keen observer of Russian society and politics. His critique of radicalism and nihilism in Demons (1872), also known as The Devils or The Possessed, reflects his concerns about Russian society in the wake of social and political upheaval. The Double, one of Dostoevsky’s earliest works, illustrates the first forays into psychological literature. The titular double is the catalyst for the existential crisis of Golyadkin, as Dostoevsky traces Golyadkin’s pained travails through the streets of Saint Petersburg.

Literary Context: The Doppelgänger

The literary concept of the doppelgänger, originating from German folklore, is a recurring motif in literature, representing the idea of a double or twin and often embodying the protagonist's darker or suppressed self. The doppelgänger symbolizes the divided self, the hidden aspects of personality, and the psychological tension within an individual. The doppelgänger often appears at moments of crisis or transformation, challenging the protagonist's sense of self and blurring the boundaries between reality and illusion. In literature, the doppelgänger motif is employed to explore themes such as alienation, identity crisis, and the struggle between good and evil. It invites readers to confront their own inner demons and uncertainties, prompting questions about the nature of identity and the human psyche.

One of the earliest instances of the doppelgänger in literature is in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust (1808), in which the protagonist, Faust, encounters his doppelgänger, Mephistopheles—a manifestation of his inner desires and temptations. Mephistopheles serves as Faust's sinister counterpart, leading him down a path of moral decay and spiritual torment.

The doppelgänger also features prominently in Edgar Allan Poe's Gothic tales, such as William Wilson (1839) and The Tell-Tale Heart (1843). In William Wilson, the protagonist is haunted by a mysterious figure who shares his name and appearance and ultimately orchestrates his downfall. Poe's use of the doppelgänger underscores the theme of guilt and conscience, as the protagonist is confronted with the consequences of his actions through his uncanny double.

The doppelgänger is also a recurring motif in Gothic and Romantic literature, where it often symbolizes the protagonist's inner turmoil and psychological instability. In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818), for example, the creature can be seen as a doppelgänger of Victor Frankenstein, embodying his creator's hubris and moral failings. Similarly, in Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886), the dual nature of the protagonist reflects the doppelgänger's theme of the divided self.

In The Double, Dostoevsky introduces the character of Yakov Petrovich Golyadkin, a low-ranking government clerk in Saint Petersburg. Golyadkin is a meek and socially awkward man, plagued by feelings of inadequacy and insignificance. However, the appearance of Golyadkin's charming and confident doppelgänger triggers a series of increasingly surreal and unsettling events, leading to Golyadkin's descent into madness. Through the characters of Golyadkin and his doppelgänger, Dostoevsky explores themes of alienation, social anxiety, and the fragmentation of the self. Golyadkin's doppelgänger embodies his repressed desires and fantasies, manifesting as a distorted reflection of his innermost fears and insecurities. The doppelgänger serves as a catalyst for Golyadkin's psychological unraveling, exposing the fragility of his sense of identity and the tenuousness of his grip on reality.

Philosophical Context: Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophical and literary movement that emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries. It challenged conventional notions of existence, identity, and meaning in literature. Existentialism finds its philosophical roots in the works of 19th-century thinkers such as Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Kierkegaard's exploration of individuality, subjectivity, and religious faith laid the groundwork for existentialist thought, emphasizing the importance of personal choice and commitment in defining one's existence.

Nietzsche's concept of the “Übermensch" (overman) and his critique of traditional morality challenged prevailing notions of truth and morality, advocating for a radical reevaluation of values based on individual will and self-expression. Similarly, Dostoevsky's novels, such as Notes from Underground and Crime and Punishment, delve into the complexities of human consciousness and the existential angst of modern life. Early examples of this existentialist thought are found in The Double, as Golyadkin is plunged into an existential crisis by his doppelgänger.

Existentialist themes are also found in the works of 20th-century philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Heidegger, and Albert Camus. Sartre's assertion that “existence precedes essence” became a foundational tenet of existentialism, emphasizing the primacy of individual existence and the absence of inherent meaning in the universe. Heidegger's concept of “being-toward-death” explored the existential anxiety inherent in human existence, while Camus famously grappled with the absurdity of life in The Stranger (1942) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942).

Evolutions of the existentialist ideas of The Double can be found in Franz Kafka’s works. In novels such as The Metamorphosis (1915) and The Trial (1925), characters confront absurd and nightmarish realities that defy rational explanation, echoing the existentialist concern with alienation and existential dread. Similarly, Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot (1953) portrays two characters who engage in aimless conversation while waiting for a figure who never arrives, highlighting the absurdity and futility of human existence. Beckett's minimalist style and bleak portrayal of the human condition exemplify the existentialist preoccupation with the meaninglessness of life and the inevitability of death.

The legacy of existentialism in literature extends beyond its initial philosophical origins, shaping the trajectory of modern literature and influencing generations of writers and artists. Existentialist themes remain popular worldwide, offering a framework for exploring the complexities of human existence and the search for meaning in an uncertain world—an early example of which is depicted in The Double.

Contemporary authors such as Haruki Murakami, Cormac McCarthy, and J. M. Coetzee draw inspiration from existentialist authors such as Dostoevsky. Their works portray themes of alienation, absurdity, and existential angst. Murakami's surreal and dreamlike narratives explore the existentialist themes of isolation and identity, while McCarthy's sparse and existentialist prose confronts the brutality and indifference of nature and human nature. These themes exist in The Double and throughout Dostoevsky’s later works.