The Design of Everyday Things

Chapter 6, a new addition to the revised and expanded edition, maintains that successful design depends on understanding root problems. Norman argues that designers must identify the correct problem before devising human-centered solutions. 

Solving the Correct Problem

Norman claims that designers are trained to solve the correct problem. According to Norman, good design begins with understanding the root problem. This requires generating multiple ideas, rather than quickly converging on a solution. Designers go back and forth as they rethink problems, which puts them at odds with product managers. They rely on several techniques to avoid arriving at facile solutions. For example, they approach the original problem not as a firm statement, but as a suggestion, before exploring its underlying issues.

Designers resist the urge to find quick solutions to stated problems, instead engaging in an iterative, expansive process called “design thinking” to uncover root causes. Design thinking begins with identifying the correct problem. Finding a solution occurs in four stages: observation, generation, prototyping, and testing. With HCD, meeting people’s needs and capabilities is central to the process.

The Double Diamond Model of Design

This section describes the Double Diamond model of design popularized in 2005 by the British Design Council. The model describes the two phases of the design process: 1) finding the right problem, and 2) finding the right solution. Both phases begin with divergence and lead to convergence.

Finding the right problem starts with expanding the scope of the problem to explore all its underlying issues before converging on the root problem. The solution phase begins in an equally expansive way before designers converge on a solution. The design process occurs in four steps. The first two, discover and define, pertain to identifying the correct problem, while the second two, develop and deliver, pertain to finding the right solution. As Norman notes, the Double Diamond method affords designers the freedom to solve problems but presents challenges for managers, who seek quick solutions to minimize costs and delays.

The Human-Centered Design Process

This section considers HCD in relation to the Double Diamond design process. It describes four HCD activities—observation, ideation, prototyping, and testing—that serve as a roadmap for designers. Each activity is iterated (repeated), yielding new insights with every cycle.

Observation is the first step to understanding a design problem. This research involves observing potential customers in their natural environments to understand their true needs, a technique borrowed from anthropology. Defining root problems stems from this critical step. Design researchers must match their subjects to the customer base, focusing on the activities being performed and the impact of the environment on these activities. Some products require detailed analyses of specific groups (e.g., Japanese teenaged girls) to match the product with its intended market and local context. This type of research is compatible with the Double Diamond design process. Finding the right problem requires understanding people’s true needs, as does finding the right solution, which demands understanding how people perform activities and their capabilities.

Design research differs from the complementary field of market research. The former seeks to understand people’s needs and activities, while the latter focuses on what people will buy. Designers generally use qualitative or observational methods, in contrast to marketers, who rely on quantitative studies, such as surveys and focus groups. The internet has led to the development of “big data,” or market analytics, with websites capturing a wealth of information about users at little expense. This type of research, however, raises concerns about privacy. Norman argues that design and market research are complementary (one addresses using, the other buying), and that both are necessary to create and sell products.

Ideation, or idea generation, comes after designers determine the design requirements. Creativity is a critical part of this process. Good design requires generating many ideas, freedom to create without constraints, and discovering solutions by asking questions. The only way to test an idea is to create a prototype. Simple sketches or cardboard models suffice in the early stages of product development, but prototypes must become more detailed as the process advances.

Testing entails gathering small groups of testers who correspond to the design’s target users. Researchers generally observe pairs of testers, with one tester operating the prototype and the other guiding the actions. Pairing testers facilitates open discussions, while recording their interactions allows researchers to glean insights about their products without distracting the testers. These videos are also distributed to team members who cannot be present during the test. Most tests use five test pairs and are repeated using different testers to ensure multiple opportunities for improvement.

Iteration allows designers to refine and enhance their products. Determining the correct requirements of a design demands repeated study and testing. Iteration clarifies ideas, hones specifications, and refines prototypes. Iteration is not open-ended, as product designers face time and cost constraints from product managers. The iterative method of HCD is circular, unlike the traditional design process, which is linear. Rather than progressing in a single direction, iterative design involves continual refinement, change, and backtracking. Norman argues that both methods are useful: The iterative method is better suited for the early design stages, while the linear method is best for later stages.

HCD focuses on people, whereas activity-focused design prioritizes usage. Designers favor activity-focused design when creating products for the global market, such as cars and computers. The approach works because people’s activities tend to be similar, regardless of where they live. Activity-focused design is compatible with HCD and better suited for large, heterogeneous populations. Being sensitive to human capabilities, alongside supporting activities, allows people to accept novel products and learn how to use them.

What I Just Told You? It Doesn’t Really Work That Way

This section addresses the gap between theory and practice. HCD describes the ideal, not the reality of creating products. Norman writes authoritatively about this issue because of his professional experience as an industry consultant. He notes that many companies focus not on HCD, but on matching the competition and making use of new technologies. Other challenges include adhering to a budget and schedule, appealing to current and future customers, and navigating patents. Most important, product development involves designers, programmers, engineers, manufacturers, and salespeople, many of whom have conflicting priorities. According to Norman, conflict between disciplines can be resolved through understanding and respect: “Good product development teams work as harmonious groups, with representatives from all the relevant disciplines present at all times. If all the viewpoints and requirements can be understood by all participants, it is often possible to think of creative solutions that satisfy most of the issues” (239).

The Design Challenge

Designers face many constraints. First, they must please their clients, who are not necessarily the end users. Some clients prioritize costs, forcing designers to sacrifice usability and make the cheapest possible product. Designers must also consider who purchases the product (as opposed to who uses it). More constraints come from engineers, developers, and manufacturers, who must translate design ideas into reality, and from marketers, who are responsible for selling the product. A good designer must center the needs of users, some of whom have special needs, while also considering the various groups involved in the production process. For Norman, these challenges are what make design an interesting and rewarding field.

Complexity is Good; It is Confusion That is Bad

This section draws a distinction between complexity and confusion. The former is essential, the latter undesirable. Products must be complex to match human activities. However, they should not confuse users. Simply put, good design allows users to understand complicated things.

Standardization and Technology

Norman argues that standardization and technological advance are the two main paths to improvement. Establishing standards, such as which side of the road to drive on, is a laborious process that requires broad consensus about the merits and drawbacks of the standards. Although standards are often a compromise among competing positions, they remain necessary for advancement.

Standardization sometimes takes so long it is overtaken by technological advances. Norman cites his personal experience with HDTV as an example. HDTV took committees approximately 35 years to standardize. Technology evolved during this time, making the battle over standard resolutions and aspect ratios irrelevant. International disagreement often hinders standardization. In addition to the HDTV conflict, Norman cites the continued use of the English and metric systems of measurement to make this point.

Deliberately Making Things Difficult

Safety features make some products difficult to use, for good reason. However, even products that are deliberately difficult to use should adhere to rules of understandable and usable design. For example, only the part designed to keep unauthorized people from using a security system should be difficult to use. The rest of the system should follow the principles of good design. Making products difficult to use might involve hiding critical components, using unnatural mappings, and making actions physically difficult to complete. Requiring user precision and not providing feedback can also enhance safety.

Design: Developing Technology for People

Norman argues that design unites people and technology, politics and business, and commerce and culture. Designers face many pressures. However, good designers always keep users in mind.