The Design of Everyday Things

Chapter 2 delves into human psychology to understand how people behave and evaluate their actions. Drawing on his training in psychology, Norman addresses emotions and understanding before translating his findings into concrete design principles.

How People Do Things: The Gulfs of Execution and Evaluation

Norman describes two gulfs people face when using products: 1) the gulf of execution, where people work out how something operates; and 2) the gulf of evaluation, where they try to understand how well their expectations were met. Most people blame themselves when they experience difficulties using products. Norman argues that the problem lies not with users, but with designs. Good design bridges the gulfs of execution and evaluation by delving deeply into the psychology of human action.

The Seven Stages of Action

Norman explains the seven stages of human action in clear, non-technical terms, making psychology accessible to non-specialists. The stages are: 1) forming a goal; 2) planning action; 3) specifying the sequence of action; 4) performing the action sequence; 5) perceiving the state of the world; 6) interpreting the perceptions; and 7) comparing the outcome with the goal.

Not all parts of the cycle are conscious, nor do they have to be performed in sequence. Rather, human action comprises numerous sequences with multiple feedback loops, whereby the results of one action prompt further actions, which sometimes overshadow the inciting action. Norman uses an example to explain this point. Turning on a light (the goal) results from an environmental event (the lack of light), which hinders reading (the subgoal). However, actions often have multiple subgoals. If the purpose of reading is to use a recipe, for instance, then cooking is also a subgoal (which satisfies the primary goal of hunger).

Goal-driven behavior starts at the top of the seven stages of action, whereas data-driven or event-driven behaviors start with the environment. Many goals are ill-defined and unplanned, leading to opportunistic actions. Norman’s action cycle provides a useful framework for understanding the human mind, which, he argues, is the point of departure of good design.

Human Thought: Mostly Subconscious

Studies show that only the highest levels of the brain’s operations are conscious (or reflective) and that most are unconscious (45). All learning is initially conscious, but most actions become unconscious when they are committed to memory. Subconscious thought proceeds rapidly and automatically, in contrast to conscious thought, which is slow and laborious. Both are essential aspects of life, yet both are subject to misconceptions and failures.

Cognitive thinking and emotion interact biochemically, flooding the brain with hormones. Positive emotional states are conducive to creative thinking, but not to getting things done. By contrast, negative emotions provide the focus needed to maintain attention and complete tasks. Thus, both positive and negative emotions are necessary for creativity and action.

Human Cognition and Emotion

This section describes three interrelated levels of human processing as it relates to design. The first, visceral processing (the so-called “lizard brain”), describes basic protective mechanisms and fast, subconscious responses to situations and events, such as the fear of heights. People’s initial reactions to designs are visceral and have nothing to do with an invention’s functionality.

The second, behavioral processing, refers to learned actions and analyses that are largely subconscious, such as speaking or playing sports. Designers must bear in mind that actions come with expectations, which lead to feelings of satisfaction or disappointment, depending on the outcome. Feedback is central to managing expectations, whereas a lack of feedback results in negative emotions. The third level of processing, reflective processing (or conscious cognition), is where deep, slow understanding develops. Reflective processing generally occurs after events have happened, usually to assess outcomes and assign responsibility. Although all three levels of human processing work together to determine whether a person likes or dislikes a product, Norman urges designers to pay particular attention to conscious cognition because the emotions produced at this level are protracted. Reflective responses become memories, which far outlast immediate experience.

The Seven Stages of Action and the Three Levels of Processing

This section links the seven stages of action to the three levels of processing. Norman provides a diagram to explain the connections (56). Visceral levels of anxiety or calmness occupy the lowest level, followed by behavioral levels driven by expectations, such as fear and hope. Reflective emotions occupy the highest level, which relates to the assessment of results in the immediate and long term.

People as Storytellers

Drawing on his background in psychology, Norman argues that humans are innately disposed to seek the causes of events and formulate explanations. Although causal explanations are often erroneous, people continue to tell stories. Norman compares conceptual models to stories that help people understand their experiences, predict the outcomes of their actions, and address unexpected occurrences. Conceptual models are often built on fragmentary evidence and erroneous beliefs, resulting in frustration and accidents.

Blaming the Wrong Things

According to Norman, people are quick to see causal relations where none exist. For example, if a person performs an action expecting a result, and no result occurs, they are apt to blame themselves and repeat the action. Repetition can have disastrous consequences. Repeatedly pushing a door during a fire, for instance, can lead to mass casualties if the door only opens when pulled.

People tend to blame themselves when they fail, fostering feelings of guilt and helplessness. Eventually, they stop trying, a psychological phenomenon called “learned helplessness.” Failure also dissuades people from trying similar tasks, creating a cycle of failure and inaction: “If you fail at something, you think it is your fault. Therefore you think you can’t do that task. As a result, next time you have to do the task, you believe you can’t, so you don’t even try. The result is that you can’t, just as you thought” (63).

One of Norman’s recommendations is to replace the word “failure” with “learning experience.” With failure comes opportunities to understand why things went wrong and how to improve. Norman urges designers to stop blaming users for their products’ shortcomings, to replace error messages in electronic devices with help and guidance messages, and to allow users to solve problems directly from this feedback.

Falsely Blaming Yourself

People generally blame themselves when products do not work. As Norman notes, however, human error is often the result of poor design. To be human is to err. Thus, designers must take error into account when creating products. Just as Norman recasts failure as an opportunity to learn, he recommends replacing the notion of human error with ideas of communication and interaction. Machines cannot communicate and understand like humans. Hence, designers must ensure that their machines behave in ways that are understandable to humans, rather than forcing people to adapt to the peculiar demands of machines. Using affordances, signifiers, and good mapping can minimize inappropriate user actions.

Good design not only accommodates human behavior by anticipating errors, but also works well even when users perform the wrong actions. Flexibility is also important to good design. Once again, Norman uses examples to make his point: Successful calendar programs, for instance, accept a wide range of formats, such as Month/Day/Year, Day/Month/Year, and phrases like “a week from tomorrow.” In doing so, he keeps his principles relevant to a modern reader.

The Seven Stages of Action: Seven Fundamental Design Principles

This section outlines a seven-stage model of action with a checklist of questions, each of which requires special design strategies:

1. What do I want to accomplish?
2. What are the alternative action sequences?
3. What action can I do now?
4. How do I do it?
5. What happened?
6. What does it mean?
7. Is this okay? Have I accomplished my goal?

Designers must provide users with the answers to these questions. Feedforward (the information that helps answer the questions) is created with signifiers, mappings, constraints, and an appropriate conceptual model. By contrast, feedback is the information that helps users understand what happened after the fact. Good designs present both in ways that are easily understood by users.

Norman develops seven design principles out of the seven stages of action, each derived from research on human emotion and cognition:

1. Discoverability
2. Feedback
3. The Conceptual Model
4. Affordances
5. Signifiers
6. Mappings
7. Constraints

Identifying deficient design principles is easy. However, creating better alternatives presents many design challenges.