The Art of War

Leading a large army is similar to leading a small force, except that the large one is divided up and organized with careful signaling.

Energy may be directed against an enemy in two basic ways: direct and indirect. Combinations of direct and indirect engagements are endless and can be arranged in infinite variety. Direct attacks pour strength against an enemy, while indirect attacks create the appearance of disorder, luring the enemy into situations where they can be defeated.

Capable generals divide their troops into different roles depending on their relative strengths, using power here and deceit there to create a total effect that fools the enemy and then routs it.

It’s important to arrive early to the field of battle and wait refreshed for the enemy, who will arrive tired. If the enemy is comfortable, the opponent harasses it; if well fed, supply lines are disrupted; if encamped, it can be forced to move. The smart army attacks the enemy’s weak spots and leaves no weaknesses for the opponent to attack.

Faced with a large army, the invader simply moves elsewhere and attacks a smaller one; this forces the large army to send regiments to aid their fellows, which splits the main force while the invader stays intact. The invader’s intentions must remain secret until the last moment, which also forces the defender to spread its forces out against attacks from anywhere.

When the enemy doesn’t know the time and place of the attack, its soldiers will become disorganized and confused. It’s vital to “Scheme so as to learn the enemy’s plans” (6.22). One way is to skirmish briefly at one point on the line and force the opponent to reveal its intentions; another is to send false signals or communiqués that goad the adversary into premature action.

After a victory, the invader must vary its tactics according to unfolding situations, both to keep its methods hidden and to take advantage of new opportunities. In all cases, it is best to be like water, flowing downhill along the path of least resistance. 

In moving across land, the secret is to wear out the opponent. It is unwise to get caught up in a race to a valued resource, which exhausts troops and burns up supplies; it is much better to lead an opponent astray, take a short route to the goal, and force the adversary to do the long, hard marching. 

When in enemy territory, local guides can provide vital information. The general should divide captured territory among the divisions so that they may share the bounty. An army remains coordinated if sounds and banners are used as signals.

It is a bad idea to attack soldiers in the morning when they’re fresh, but better to lay siege to an army in the evening when it’s tired. If the army suddenly retreats, this may be a trap; an army clearly routed, however, should be permitted an escape route, lest it fight so fiercely that it turns the tide.

The good general revises plans and tactics according to changes in the field, even to the point of disobeying the ruler. To escape difficult situations, the commander must always be ready to “seize the advantage” when an opportunity arises or face disaster (8.9).

Five character flaws can lead to tactical errors by military commanders. They are recklessness, bad temper, cowardice, touchiness, and worry—especially about one’s troops). Each can lead to defeat and the death of the leader in battle.