River of the Gods: Genius, Courage and Betrayal in the Search for the Source of the Nile

Richard Francis Burton (1821-1890) was a British explorer, writer, gifted linguist, and soldier. While his nationality was British (he was born in Devon, England), he never truly felt British largely because he spent most of his life outside the country.

Many of his fellow British citizens viewed Burton suspiciously. Not only did he not understand the culture—a product of not having grown up in the country—but he also did not look particularly British. British novelist Bram Stoker, who wrote Dracula, remarked after his first encounter with Burton, “He was dark, and forceful, and masterful, and ruthless…I never saw anyone like him. He is steel. He would go through you like a sword” (11). Burton’s black eyes, dark hair, deep voice, and elongated canines (which might have served as inspiration for Stoker’s Dracula) in particular, captivated everyone he met.

Burton joined the British East India Company after engineering his own expulsion from Oxford University. During his life, Burton accomplished many firsts, including being the first European to enter Mecca disguised as an Arab and being the first European, alongside Speke, to travel to Lake Tanganyika. Burton and Speke accomplished much together, but their friendship turned into bitter rivalry. Despite this, Burton remained haunted by Speke’s death.

While his mind was still sharp, Burton’s body slowly failed him. In his final years, Burton translated and published many controversial books. He wrote ethnographies on not only the customs of other cultures, but also their sexual practices. These writings on sex and pornography shocked most of his fellow peers, although his translations of erotic works such as the Kama Sutra would bring him both notoriety and publishing success. After his death, Isabel destroyed his final unpublished manuscript, an action that deeply angered many of Burton’s friends. Isabel buried Burton in a granite and marble tomb in England that looked like an Arab tent.

In contrast to Speke, Burton remains well-known, in part because of his numerous books, poems, and translations. His portrait hangs in London’s National Portrait Gallery.

John Hanning Speke (1827-1864) was born into an aristocratic family and raised at Jordans, his family estate in Somerset, England. Here, he learned how to hunt, setting the stage for his lifelong passion for hunting big game. He moved to India after joining the Bengal Native Infantry, where he developed mapping skills and an interest in natural history.

Speke was not interested in learning about other cultures or religions, instead devoting his free time to hunting in new areas. For him, hunting was about relieving stress and proving his manliness. Speke was also deeply religious and had a nervous temperament.

Despite Burton’s misgivings about Speke, he allowed him to join his expedition after learning about Stocks’ death. From the very beginning, Speke was jealous of Burton. This jealousy, coupled with Speke’s mistaken belief that Burton accused him of cowardice during the attack on their expedition in Somaliland, marks the beginning of Speke’s growing resentment of Burton.

Speke joined Burton’s second expedition to the Nile River. He returned to England before Burton, who was gravely ill. Upon his return, Speke claimed that he had discovered the source of the Nile River. He met with the president of the Royal Geographic Society, Sir Roderick Murchison, arguing that Nyanza was the source of the Nile River (a point that Burton disagreed with). Speke also believed he should return to Nyanza to prove his claim. Murchison agreed and sent Speke back to East Africa. Speke traveled back to Nyanza with Grant, where he believed he settled the debate about the Nile River’s source. Burton vehemently disagreed.

The Royal Geographic Society decided that the two men should debate their ideas in public after Speke returned once more from East Africa. The so-called “Great Nile Debate” was supposed to take place on September 16th, 1864. The day before the debate, Speke and Burton ran into one another in the debate hall. Speke fled the hall to Neston Park, which was his uncle’s estate. He went hunting with one of his cousins, George Fuller. Fuller kept his distance since he realized Speke was very agitated. Fuller later heard a gunshot and saw Speke fall from a low stone wall. Speke died shortly after from a gunshot wound to his chest. To this day, it remains unclear whether Speke’s death was an accident or intentional. Millard too remains undecided.

Even though Speke was correct about the source of the Nile River, his accomplishments remain largely forgotten today.

Sidi Mubarak Bombay (1820?-1885) was a Yao explorer and guide who participated in expeditions led by British explorers to East Africa in the 19th century, including Burton and Speke’s expeditions to find the source of the Nile River. As a boy, Bombay was kidnapped from his Yao village in East Africa. During this kidnapping, he lost everything, including his name, family, and home. He was brought from the interior of Africa hundreds of miles to the coast of Zanzibar, where his kidnappers sold him for cloth. His new enslaver took him to western India, where he remained enslaved for 20 years. He became a free man when his enslaver died.

Rather than staying in India, Bombay traveled back to East Africa, where he became one of the most widely traveled individuals in Africa. He covered nearly 6,000 miles during his lifetime, largely on foot. He is one of the most accomplished guides, yet few people know about his travels. Millard tries to change this by including him as a main character in her book.

English writer, explorer, and adventurer, Isabel Arundell (1831-1896), also known as Lady Burton, was the wife of Richard Francis Burton. Millard notes that Isabel “was everything he was not—religious and aristocratic, pale-haired and blue-eyed, young and naïve. He, on the other hand, was everything she wanted to be” (73). Isabel’s writings suggest that books led her to desire an adventurous life, despite being extremely religious. Isabel was from a strict Catholic family.

Isabel became obsessed with Burton from a young age. Their courtship lasted over a decade, with Isabel and Burton finally marrying after Burton returned from the East Africa Expedition. By marrying Burton, Arundell was able to get the life of adventure that she desired. She remained deeply obsessed with her husband, even as his body deteriorated and he became angrier and more resentful.