Pericles, Funeral Oration

The “Funeral Oration of Pericles” is frequently cited in ceremonies that commemorate those who died in battle. In this way, it parallels US President Abraham Lincoln’s 1863 Gettysburg Address, delivered at the dedication of a cemetery on the site of the deadliest battle of the Civil War. Edward Everett, who spoke before Lincoln at the memorial for the Battle of Gettysburg, quoted Pericles extensively (Hall, Edith. “The Athenian Cemetery in the Age of Pericles.” Gresham College Lecture in Classics. 7 March 2019). The British also used the “Funeral Oration of Pericles” during World War I to encourage the war effort and, later, in memorials of those who died in battle (“Context and Meaning: Introduction to the Funeral Oration.” Thinking Through Thucydides. The University of Bristol).

The “Funeral Oration of Pericles” is an exercise in persuasion by the general who led Athens’s efforts in the Peloponnesian War. This speech, as recorded by Thucydides, is rhetorically different from other classical Greek speeches. Thucydides had no way to record orations word-for-word and even tells his readers he does not attempt to do so. But with the “Funeral Oration,” it is probable that he attempted to remain close to at least the core of the speech. Thucydides greatly admired Pericles; he writes nothing negative about him and often praises his political acumen. This makes it unlikely that he deliberately altered the contents of his speech. The differences between what the author claims Pericles said and the rhetorical norms of funeral speeches in the era also make it improbable that the text was greatly altered.

Classical funeral orations were expected to praise the long history of the city-state, especially its military history. Pericles does not do that; he refers to past military glories only briefly. Instead, he appeals to his listeners’ patriotic fervor by emphasizing the glory and uniqueness of Athens. To persuade his listeners to support and sacrifice for the war effort, Pericles celebrates Athenian identity and democracy.

Emphasizing the virtues of Athens changes the focus of Pericles’s speech from the dead to the city-state itself; it centers how and why citizens should love their home and be ready to die for it. As a general and a politician, Pericles needed to align the Athenian population with his ideals to maintain their support for him and his strategy. Knowing the Spartan infantry to be a superior fighting force—it would not be defeated by another Greek force until 378 BCE, more than half a century after this speech was given—Pericles advocated a policy of withdrawing behind the walls of the city. This allowed Athens to rely on its superior navy and occasional cavalry engagement to keep the Spartans from coming too near the city and tactics such as sending out the infantry after the Spartans returned home for the winter. Some Athenians criticized this policy as cowering behind walls. Thus, Pericles’s speech must persuade these dissatisfied young men, and any others who were wavering, to support him and his strategy.

While the mood is somber, given the commemoration of all who died in the war in the past year, Pericles subtly shifts it by referring to the glory of the dead, earned by dying for Athens. Although Pericles intends to persuade his audience to support his war tactics, his strategy is never directly mentioned. Instead, he paints an idealized portrait of Athens to shape the listeners’ attitude toward the city and, in doing so, change their attitude toward the war. Reinvigorating this sense of local pride is necessary because the Peloponnesian War is Greek against Greek; thus, Pericles must construct an argument that makes Athenians seem superior to citizens of other city-states. He must construct an image of Athens that the audience is devoted to and will vigorously support.

To highlight this patriotism, Pericles reminds his listeners that their form of government, democracy, is unique among the Greeks. Only in Athens is status based on one’s work, service, and capabilities, rather than on factors of social class or wealth. He presents a version of Athens that affords “equal justice to all in their private differences; [...] class consideration not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor does poverty bar the way” (2.37.1). Democracy, in Athens, means that any man who does not do his duty is not “unambitious but useless,” and Athenians consider debating issues before making decisions “an indispensable preliminary to any wise action” (2.40.2).

This idealized version of the city-state and the equality it offers omits several aspects of its social hierarchies. For example, in Athens, citizenship is very narrowly defined, and only male citizens can participate in government. This excludes enslaved people, and the foreigners who were otherwise welcome in Athens. Women are defined as citizens only in terms of their reproductive capabilities: To be a citizen, both a man’s mother and his father must be citizens. Women had no say in government, and all but the poorest were isolated within the home, appearing in public only for civic and religious celebrations. At the end of the speech, Pericles specifically addresses the women, telling the widows not to make a spectacle of themselves. Thus, the merit-based ascent to which Pericles refers under the constitution of Athens was limited to a small percentage of its residents.

Pericles further idealizes Athenians for their exceptional education system, equanimity, and adherence to law. He states that all Hellas, or Greeks, could benefit from adopting the city’s educational model, since it makes Athenians so adaptable and resourceful. Further, he announces that the Athenians are not jealous of one another. In fact, they respect not only the written laws of their city but also a mutually understood set of standards “which, although unwritten, yet cannot be broken without acknowledged disgrace” (2.37.3). This utopian view seeks to further intensify his listeners’ feelings of pride in their home.

Further, Pericles claims that though the Spartans called on their allies, the Athenians have not needed help from their own thus far. This also presents a distorted view: Athens treated most of its allies more as subjects than as equals, and the other members of the Delian League were unlikely to take a favorable view of being called on to defend Athens.

Funeral orations honor those who died, and this speech was delivered at a festival specifically memorializing those who died for the state. Thus, Pericles must depict those being commemorated on this occasion as heroic patriots who sacrificed their lives for the good of Athens and its people. Since Athens is superior to other Greek city-states, dying for Athens is of great benefit:

For there is justice in the claim that steadfastness in his country’s battles should be as a cloak to cover a man’s other imperfections; since the good action has blotted out the bad, and his merit as a citizen more than outweighed his demerits as an individual (2.42.3).

According to this argument, giving one’s life for Athens is of such great value that it compensates for any shortcomings or moral failings that the fallen soldier may have had in his private life. Pericles also argues that their sacrifices spared them future suffering. Fortune was a fickle goddess to the ancient Greeks; by dying, these men prevented fortune from having the opportunity to do them harm in the future. Pericles concludes his commemoration by highlighting the fallen soldiers’ courage in dying while fighting and free, rather than fleeing in fear: “Thus choosing to die resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from dishonor, but met danger face to face” (2.42.4). Portraying this as a great moral feat, the “Funeral Oration” offers “comfort, therefore, not condolence” to the families who lost loved ones (2.44.1). Pericles calls on the parents who are still young enough to do so to produce more children, both to ease their grief and to promote the further greatness of Athens. Those who are too old to have more children should celebrate their sons’ loyalty rather than mourn; they died “as became Athenians” (2.43.1). To sustain the war effort, Pericles must ensure that others will be willing to make the same sacrifice, especially the brothers and sons of the dead. He must also encourage families to continue reproducing to be sure there will be new generations of Athenians who will struggle and suffer for their home.