Pensées

Pascal reflects on human nature and its foibles and the “inconstancy, boredom, anxiety” (6) that characterize the human condition. In particular, human beings are faulted for “vanity,” or acting as if proud and wise and powerful when they are really weak and ignorant and dependent. Moreover, it is part of human nature not to want to face the realities of death, morality, and judgment but instead to put them off through “diversions” like games and amusements.

One of the powerful factors contributing to human illusions is imagination, “the dominant faculty in man” (9), which negatively affects our judgment both of ourselves and of the world around us. Our senses are always deceiving us, and our passions cloud our reason. Moreover, our imagination causes us always to be living in the past or the future rather than in the present moment, which is all we actually have. The only force powerful enough to eradicate all this human error is God’s grace.

Due to his condition of sin and ignorance, man is subject to various kinds of misery or wretchedness. Human beings tyrannize by wanting to compete for excellence and mastery over others. They justify evil deeds under a guise of legality or custom. Above all, because he lacks a direct vision or knowledge of God, man is like a small creature lost in the middle of an infinite universe, not knowing why he is here or who put him in this particular time and place.

The fact that human beings seek distractions to avoid thinking about these deep questions shows that they are not happy but essentially miserable. Those who have applied themselves to the deep questions from the perspective of skepticism and rationalism have not found convincing answers, proving their philosophical systems to be bankrupt.

Mankind is subject to boredom, unable to keep to one activity or way of life without longing for something else and often trying something new for the sake of vanity or from wanting to look good to others.

This subsection consists of various notes and observations that Pascal apparently intended to use in a section of his treatise dealing with causes and effects in human life. Pascal reflects on the contrast between “right” and “might” in the political order, arguing that we must either make might conform to right or vice versa. Since might is physical whereas right is spiritual—and therefore easily manipulated—societies have subordinated right to might, resulting in injustice that is nevertheless sanctioned by law.

Other sayings in this subsection deal with the nature of human knowledge and judgment, illusions on the part of common people toward wealth and power, and human moral weakness as seen in the setting up of artificial standards of excellence. Pascal observes that “ordinary people have some very sound opinions” (26) even though they hold them for the wrong reasons, not understanding the real intellectual reasons why the principles are true.

Pascal defines his concept of man’s spiritual greatness, as contrasted with his misery and unhappiness, with the two conditions throwing light on each other. Pascal also sets forth his major claim about reason versus intuition, arguing that we discover truth “not only through our reason but also through our heart” (28).

This observation heads Fragment 110, a mini-essay in which Pascal argues that “first principles” are known only through “the heart and instinct” (28) and are therefore unable to be refuted by reason. Such principles are “felt,” while “propositions” are “proved,” and both sources of knowledge are equally valid. While we may believe that reason is “the judge of everything” (29), we must “humble reason” and recognize that it is not the only source of knowledge. This also holds true for the knowledge that leads to religion and salvation: It is just as possible for God to “move people’s hearts” to accept faith as it is for people to use reason to understand religious doctrine.

Pascal states his major claim that man’s greatness consists in thought or self-knowledge. Man is great because he is aware of his condition, which is not true of any other being in nature. In one of the most famous images in the Pensées, Pascal characterizes man as a “thinking reed”—weak and unhappy, but nevertheless self-aware. In Fragment 117, Pascal characterizes man as a dispossessed king, aware of having fallen from a state of former happiness. Our dignity consists in our ability to think and intellectually grasp the world around us, which allows us to gain mastery over our situation. In particular, man’s awareness of his unhappiness and inadequacy impels him to seek salvation through God’s grace.

Humanity is characterized by contradictions, rooted in its dual nature as both great and wretched. Although they are wretched—affected by ignorance, uncertainty, and physical and moral evil—human beings are also great because they know their condition and can take steps to rise above it.

It is “dangerous” to emphasize one of the sides of mankind without reference to the other: We must not depict mankind as exclusively great or exclusively miserable. We must instead take account of both conditions so as to avoid pride on the one hand and low self-esteem on the other. Pascal depicts God as contradicting man’s opinion of himself by successively humbling and exalting him; in this way, humans may arrive at a just appreciation of their nature and condition.

In Fragment 131, Pascal considers the merits of skepticism, a major trend in philosophy. Skepticism gains strength from its seeming neutrality: Skeptics claim to suspend judgment on everything, “including themselves.” Skeptics attempt to submit every fact or belief to doubt, including even the fact that we are awake when we believe ourselves to be so. For Pascal it is absurd to go this far. Ultimately, skepticism is self-contradictory; Pascal claims, “a perfectly genuine sceptic has never existed” because “nature backs up helpless reason and stops it going too wildly astray” (34).

On the other hand, man cannot claim, as do the “dogmatists,” to be a certain possessor of truth either, because he is always subject to error and uncertainty. The only sane position is to recognize mankind’s “dual nature”: capable of eternal knowledge and happiness, but corrupted in the present life by original sin. In a word, “man infinitely transcends man” (35). Humanity’s only hope is to be humble and “listen to God,” submitting their reason to God’s higher knowledge and trusting in his grace.

Mankind seeks diversions as a distraction from unhappiness, sin, and death. We are caught in a vicious cycle stemming from our dual nature. On the one hand, we remember from our state of happiness before the Fall that happiness consists of being at rest, yet at present we are deeply unhappy and therefore seek constant activity, thinking that striving toward a goal and achieving it will enable us to finally enjoy rest. However, since we have lost the ability to be happy in this life, rest leads to boredom, so we seek yet more activity to fill the void. The human condition thus consists in the need to keep constantly busy and strive after worldly goals (“property […], health […], honour […] fortune”) (42), because otherwise we would have to face ourselves and our miserable condition.

Pascal faults philosophers for trying to take the place of God in the public’s affections: Because they desire fame and adulation, they seek to become the object of mankind’s happiness instead of leading them to seek God. Further, philosophers are ineffectual in telling people to “withdraw into yourselves” (44) and find happiness within, because our instincts and passions impel us to seek happiness in something outside of ourselves.

Pascal faults Stoicism in particular for holding out unrealistic expectations for human beings. Philosophy in general is so far from being a good moral guide that various philosophical schools are nothing but manifestations of various forms of concupiscence (See: Index of Terms): sensuality (Epicureans), pride (Stoics), and over-curiosity (scientists).

The “sovereign good” is happiness, which all human beings desire and seek as their goal. However, Pascal observes that those without faith complain of not attaining happiness. For him, this proves that man’s happiness, his true good, is identifiable with God, and that no lesser thing—power, knowledge, or pleasure—can satisfy his craving. The fact that man still desires this unseen happiness proves that he was once supremely happy but that all that remains since the Fall is an “empty print and trace” (45) of happiness.

Nevertheless, we are unable to see this truth. Failing to learn from our experience because each instance is slightly different, we delude ourselves into thinking that next time we will be able to obtain happiness by our own efforts, until finally “death comes as the ultimate and eternal climax” (45).

Note: The initials at the head of this subsection have not been satisfactorily explained by scholars.

Since mankind’s “greatness and wretchedness” are established facts, the religion that is true must be the one that teaches this fact, explains why it is so, and offers a cure for this condition. Pascal finds philosophy, and other religions (such as Islam) inadequate because they teach finding happiness in one’s own self or in earthly pleasures.

Pascal represents God as teaching humanity not to seek for happiness within themselves but in knowing and loving him. All other systems of thought have either treated man as if he was equal with God or as if he were no better than an animal. Christianity alone gives a true and balanced account of human identity and provides a cure for the “pride” and “concupiscence” that have kept mankind away from God for so long.

Pascal answers the objection that it is “incredible that God should unite himself to us” (49) in the person of Jesus. Using logic, Pascal argues that since we do not possess perfect knowledge, we cannot possibly presume to measure God’s mercy and power and what means he could use to win us back. Therefore, although the argument seems to be based on humility, it is actually “intolerable presumption.”

Switching back to God’s perspective, Pascal explains that God grants mankind “miracles and proofs” that engage his reason to convince him of the truth. He manifests himself to mankind sometimes in a clear and sometimes in a hidden way, making himself “perfectly recognizable” to those who wish to see—i.e., those who have faith.

These notes were apparently intended for the beginning of Pascal’s treatise and deal with various subjects. Pascal criticizes the tendency of skeptics to imply that Christianity is no different from any other religion without investigating the matter in greater depth. At the same time, unbelievers and atheists are to be pitied rather than abused because their stance makes them “unhappy enough” and abuse will only harm them.

Pascal divides humanity into three classes: those who have found God, those who are seeking him, and those who are indifferent. He asserts that the “blindness” of those who do not seek God proves God’s existence just as surely as the “zeal” of those who do seek him. We must live our lives as if our existence is uncertain and we don’t know if we will live even for another hour. Instead, we try to avoid thinking about our ultimate end by means of distractions. The heart is the most important part of man, followed by instinct and then, finally, the principles of reason.

Pascal explores the relationship between reason and faith. Christianity demands using one’s reason to explore truth, yet also “submitting” one’s reason to faith when necessary. To exclude reason, and to admit nothing but reason, are both “excesses.” Faith gives us information above and beyond what we can get from reason and the senses, yet does not contradict them. Part of using reason well is to recognize that there are things that are beyond reason’s ability to comprehend.

We know God only through Jesus Christ, the mediator between God and mankind. That is why attempts to prove God’s existence without reference to Christ are “futile” at best. Belief in Christ is more certain than such proofs because it is supported by miracles and fulfilled prophesies. Thus, through Jesus’s human existence we can prove his divinity and, thus, God’s existence. Whereas proving God without Christ leads only to human pride, knowing God through Christ leads to humility and knowledge of one’s own “wretchedness,” and thus, to spiritual betterment.

Man is in a “blind and wretched state” (59) without any “unaided knowledge” of why he is here, what he is supposed to do with his life or what will happen to him after he dies. By contemplating the vastness of the universe compared with his smallness and ignorance, man will arrive at humility and a just appreciation of where he stands in relation to the infinite. He will then understand that he is “a middle point between all and nothing” (61) and will trust in the omnipotence of God, not seeking to go beyond the limits of his knowledge but staying “quietly in the state in which nature has placed him” (64). In a word, man’s salvation will consist in “thinking well,” because the capacity for rational thought is what dignifies him above the rest of nature.

For Pascal, Christianity has marks of truth that other religions lack. Pascal compares Christianity with Islam, arguing that Jesus Christ has more credibility as a religious figure than Mohammed. Whereas Mohammed followed “the path of success” (68) and turned to violence against unbelievers, Jesus followed the path of suffering and death, in the process giving his followers new life. This argues for his divinity, because only a divine being would make such a supreme sacrifice. That Christianity understands human nature—and particularly mankind’s middle state—argues for its truth. Christianity embodies a mixture of qualities that appeal to every class of people and every side of human nature, from the learned to the simple.

Pascal contrasts Jewish expectations—oriented toward the hopes and fortunes of a single people—with their fulfillment in Christ, whose religion and salvation are universal.

These notes were apparently intended for a chapter of Pascal’s treatise dealing with the foundations of the Christian faith. Pascal stresses the humility that human beings must have in searching for divine knowledge. Instead of presenting truth in an obvious and unmistakable way, God makes truth partly visible and partly hidden. It can be seen by those who have humility and spiritual insight but is invisible to others. That which is obscure and that which is clear prove each other through their very contrast, and both serve a purpose for our improvement. Jesus himself was not recognized by everybody as the Son of God, but those who had the light of faith believed in him. This is partly why many religions exist, so that we will diligently seek for the true one and thus sharpen our spiritual insight. In this way, God perfects our will instead of granting immediate enlightenment.

The remaining nine chapters of Section 1 explore Christian theology from the perspective of the continuity between the story of the Jewish people in the Old Testament and the purported fulfillment of their prophecies in the New Testament.

For Pascal the Jewish law was figurative—that is, it was a symbol that pointed to a deeper fulfillment in the life of Christ. Like religious knowledge in general, the Old Testament prophecies contained elements that were clear and elements that were obscure or hidden, so as to appeal to the just and confound sinners. Christ came in a form that was unexpected—he was a simple, lowly man, not a great king, yet at the same time he embodied greatness according to Jewish expectations in that he was the descendent of King David. The “carnal Jews” (i.e., those who judged according to worldly standards) missed both the humble and the majestic elements of Christ and thus failed to see him as the Messiah.

To understand Scripture correctly, one must find a meaning that reconciles all its seemingly contradictory passages. This is only found in Christ and the New Testament, which solves the riddles and fulfills the prophecies posed by the Old Testament. Christian revelation shows that the Jewish prophecies were meant figuratively, not literally.

For example, when God in the Old Testament promised to deliver the Jews from their enemies and to establish a king to rule over them in peace, the story of Christianity reveals that this was a metaphor: Christ delivered humanity from its enemy, sin (rather than any literal enemy) and became, not an earthly king, but a spiritual head and leader of a new church that would lead humanity into new life in heaven.

Pascal lists and makes brief comments on the various sacred books of rabbinical Judaism: the Mishna, the Talmud, and others. He emphasizes that this body of literature testifies to the belief in original sin and thus supports the truths of Christianity.

The fact that the beliefs and prophecies of Judaism and Christianity have lasted now for several thousand years proves that they are divine. In all times and in all religions, there have been “carnal” and more enlightened and “spiritual” people.

The ancient Jews took great care to preserve the history of their ancestors, and this was partly rooted in the fact that people in those days lived very long lives. Although the Jews displayed great wisdom and moral and spiritual excellence in the old covenant, they in a sense rejected all of this wisdom and the promises it pointed toward by rejecting the Christian message of the cross as “folly.” At the same time, their continuing faith in their law shows great zeal and spiritual fortitude, especially considering that they have no more prophets to guide them.

Numerous facts about Jesus’s life and subsequent history point to or prove his divinity. Pascal claims that the Gospels do not depict events as a writer with an interest in distorting or sugarcoating the facts might do, but as someone disinterestedly recording the facts. Jesus’s humility, weakness, and sufferings are emphasized, which would not appeal to commonsense assumptions.

Jesus’s coming was clearly foretold in the Old Testament, and many aspects of his life can be understood as fulfilling specific prophecies.

This subsection contains brief notes on particular symbols of the Old Testament fulfilled by the New.

Christian morality is great because it recognizes man’s duality, teaching that man exists between the states of greatness and wretchedness. In doing so, it humbles pride yet at the same time encourages mankind to seek to be like God. Thus, Christian teaching saves mankind from the two extremes: hubris on the one hand, and the despair of self-hatred on the other.

God created human beings precisely to be “thinking members,” rational beings who could share in his creative love. Human beings achieve this by becoming intelligent members of a greater body, of which Christ is the head. Christian morality consists in part in keeping the body and passions in conformity with the will and reason.

Those who have an “inward disposition” toward faith can believe without miracles or rational proof. To love God is greater than merely to have rational knowledge of him, and it is our ultimate goal.