Parallel Myths

Subsection 1 Summary: “The Story of Siegfried (Norse/Germany)”

Alberich, king of the Niebelungen (Dwarven miners who dwell beneath the mountains), possesses a powerful ring that gives him “mastery of the world” (180). The ring (and the rest of Alberich’s treasure), however, is guarded by Fafner, a giant in dragon form. Fafner and Wotan, king of the gods, both have an interest in keeping the ring from the dwarves, for they know that a great champion will one day emerge and overthrow them. When the warrior Siegmund dies in battle and his wife, Sieglinde, dies after giving birth to Siegfried, the infant is entrusted to a dwarf, Mime. Mime raises Siegfried as his own son knowing that he will fulfill the prophecy and recover the ring. As Siegfried grows, however, it becomes obvious that he is not of the dwarf race, and Siegfried demands to know the truth of his heritage.

One day, Wotan, disguised as a traveler, visits Mime and Siegfried. Having drunk the waters of Mimir’s well of wisdom, Wotan knows all too well the prophecy and Siegfried’s role in it. Mime asks Wotan many questions about heaven and earth, who dwells there, and the noble Walsungs, Siegfried’s parents. As Wotan cannot lie, he tells them about the prophecy—that whoever reforges the sword Nothung can slay the dragon and take possession of the ring. Siegfried now understands his fate and demands that Mime reforge the sword, but Mime’s skill is not up to the task, so Siegfried does it himself. Then he sets forth to slay Fafner. Venturing into the forest, he finds Fafner enclosed in a ring of fire but slays him with a single blow. Tasting the dragon’s blood, Siegfried can now understand the language of birds, who tell him the location of the treasure.

He finds the treasure in a cave but takes only the ring of power, unaware of the curse Alberich has placed on it. Anyone other than Alberich who takes the ring is cursed to die by the treachery of another. Mime and Alberich appear, and Siegfried is convinced that Mime wants the ring for himself, and so he slays him. Alberich recovers his treasure, content to wait until the ring’s curse dooms Siegfried.

Eager for adventure, Siegfried sets out to rescue the sleeping Brünnhilde, cursed into sleep by her father, Wotan, for aiding Sieglinde during her pregnancy. As Siegfried approaches the rock on which she sleeps, Wotan tries to dissuade him from rescuing Brünnhilde. Siegfried now knows that this traveler is actually Wotan, and he steps through the ring of fire to wake Brünnhilde with a kiss. When he removes her helmet, however, she is transformed from an immortal Walküre warrior into a mortal woman. He places the ring on her finger and vows to return.

He then journeys to Giuchungen, the land of King Gunther and his sorceress mother, Griemhild. Aware of Siegfried’s heroic status, Griemhild vows to marry him to her daughter, Gutrune, and Brünnhilde to her son. Through a series of enchantments and deceptions, Siegfried marries Gutrune, and Gunther returns to the palace with Brünnhilde, who assumes Gunther, not Siegfried, has rescued her. She eventually finds out the truth—Siegfried did not forsake her of his own will but was bewitched by Griemhild. As Gutrune’s husband, however, Brünnhilde can never be with Siegfried. Brünnhilde tells Gunther, falsely, that Siegfried made love to her, and she demands Gunther avenge her honor by killing Siegfried. Gunther orders his brother to do the deed, and he kills Siegfried in his sleep. Brünnhilde therefore fulfills the curse of the ring and hurls herself on Siegfried’s funeral pyre.

Subsection 2 Summary: “Theseus (Greece)”

Theseus, king of Crete, is best known as the hero who navigates the infamous Labyrinth and defeats the Minotaur, but he also passes many other trials in his life, an apt allegory for human existence in general. By way of historical context, Bierlein describes a large palace excavated in Crete, labyrinthine with its maze of corridors and decorated with paintings of bullfights (a reference to the half-man, half-bull minotaur). Interestingly, the palace also has sophisticated plumbing, centuries (at least) ahead of Western Europe. These architectural details may have given rise to the myth of Theseus.

The Youth of Theseus

Aegeus, King of Athens, has no heir, so he journeys to Corinth to consult with Medea, a sorceress. She offers him magic to sire a son in exchange for asylum in Athens. He agrees. On his way back to Athens, he has an affair with Aethra, a woman of royal lineage. Aegeus tells her that, if the baby is a boy, she must raise him there, in Troezen, in secret. He hides his sandals and sword so that when the child reaches adulthood and comes to claim the throne as his birthright, he can bring these tokens as proof. Aethra does indeed give birth to a boy—Theseus—and, as instructed, Theseus finds the tokens under a rock and sets out for Athens to make his claim. Along the way, he encounters four bandits infamous for killing travelers and taking their money, but Theseus slays all of them. When he finally reaches Athens, the citizens have heard of his brave deeds, and they welcome him enthusiastically.

Theseus in Athens

King Aegeus, unaware that Theseus is his son, grants Medea asylum in Athens as he promised. Soon after, they are married, and she bears him a son, Medus. Aegeus assumes this is the son Medea foretold. Both Aegeus and Medea are aware of Theseus, and both see him as a threat to the throne, so they resolve to kill him. Medea poisons his wine, but during a feast Theseus takes out his sword, and Aegeus recognizes it as the token he left behind in Troezen. Now aware of Theseus’s identity, he welcomes his son as his heir and banishes Medea for her treachery.

Theseus and the Minotaur

Minos, the king of Crete, sends his only son, Androgeus, on a diplomatic mission to Athens, where King Aegeus asks for his help killing a troublesome bull (Cretans are known for their skill with bulls). Androgeus is killed in the attempt. To prevent a war, Minos demands that Athens sends seven of its finest men and women to Crete every nine years as a tribute. These offerings are sacrificed to the half-man, half-bull monster the Minotaur, the spawn of Minos’s wife and a prized white bull gifted to Minos by the sea god Poseidon. The Minotaur is kept in an elaborate labyrinth built by the master builder Daedalus.

One year, Theseus volunteers to go to Crete as tribute, vowing to kill the Minotaur and end the slaughter of young Athenian men and women. As the Athenians are paraded through the streets of Crete, Minos’s daughter, Ariadne, falls in love with Theseus and decides to assist his escape from the labyrinth. She gives him a ball of string with which to trace a path out of the maze. Once inside, Theseus kills the Minotaur, the Athenians escape, and all return to Greece. The returning Athenians agreed on a signal to forewarn Aegeus: A black sail would indicate all Athenians had died in the labyrinth; a white sail would mean all had survived. In their rush to leave Crete, they neglect to change the black sail to white, and Aegeus, thinking his son has perished, throws himself into the sea in his grief. Upon his return, Theseus is now king. After establishing Athens as a hub of culture, democracy, and prosperity, Theseus embarks on further adventures, sailing with Jason to find the Golden Fleece, among many others.

Later, Theseus marries Phaedra, Ariadne’s sister. Theseus has a son, Hippolytus, by a former marriage, and his beauty attracts the goddess Aphrodite. Hippolytus, however, spurns Aphrodite’s affections in favor of the virgin goddess of the hunt, Artemis. In retribution, Aphrodite causes Phaedra to fall in love with Hippolytus, her stepson. When Hippolytus rejects Phaedra’s advances, Phaedra kills herself, blaming her suicide on Hippolytus. Enraged, Theseus banishes his son, and as Hippolytus  leaves Athens, his chariot is set upon by a sea creature sent by Poseidon. Hippolytus is thrown from his chariot and killed. Later, Artemis informs Theseus that his son was innocent and Aphrodite was responsible. Grieved, Theseus begs the gods for mercy. In the end, Theseus dies by the treachery of a friend for believing the lies of Phaedra over the virtue of his own son.

Subsection 3 Summary: “Hiawatha Tarenyawagon (Iroquois)”

The Iroquois myth of Hiawatha, which follows, diverges sharply from the character portrayed in the Longfellow poem Song of Hiawatha, which attributes her heritage to the Algonquin tribe of the Lake Superior region rather than the Iroquois of central and western New York State.

Seeing war and despair among human beings, Tarenyawagon, “upholder of the heavens” (191), leads a small group to a cave and bids them sleep until peace returns. After they have rested, he leads them east toward the rising sun, where they settle happily in a great lodge house and prosper, forming large families. Then, Tarenyawagon takes a little girl by the hand (the Iroquois are a matriarchal society) and divides the families into five nations: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. He then gives each nation a gift. To the Onondaga, he gives great knowledge; to the Oneida, he gives skill in weaving and weapons making; to the Mohawk, great skill in hunting. Tarenyawagon goes to live with the Onondaga people and takes the name Hiawatha.

As the Iroquois prepare to defend themselves against an Algonquin attack, Hiawatha sacrifices his daughter, Mnihaha, to the Great Mystery Bird of Heaven in exchange for peace, for it is a universal truth that for every life there must be death. After mourning the loss of his daughter, Hiawatha unites the five nations into one tribe and instructs them to choose the wisest of the women to rule them. Each of the (formerly) separate nations has a task—Mohawk are the farmers, Seneca are the spokespeople, etc.

Subsection 4 Summary: “The Myth of Sisyphus (Greece)”

Zeus, who is smitten by Aegina, daughter of the river god Asopus, abducts Aegina and carries her off through the streets of Corinth. When Asopus asks for information about his daughter’s disappearance, not one Corinthian will speak for fear of Zeus. Sisyphus, however, offers Asopus information in exchange for a freshwater spring within the city walls. The river god agrees, and soon Corinthians no longer have to haul fresh water over long distances. When Asopus confronts Zeus over the abduction of his daughter, the king of Gods knows who divulged the secret, and he orders Hades to send Death to claim Sisyphus. Death, however, is welcomed by Sisyphus, and they sit down to tea. Sisyphus then shows Death a pair of handcuffs, and Death playfully slips them on. As time passes, Sisyphus does not remove them, and Death remains his prisoner.

With Death no longer claiming bodies, the gods complain that the earth will become overpopulated and wars will become pointless. Zeus commands Ares, the god of war, to free Death and carry Sisyphus’s soul to the Underworld. Sisyphus instructs his wife not to bury his body, and upon arriving in the Underworld, he complains that he cannot remain there unless his body is buried properly. Hades gives him three days to set his affairs in order, but once free, Sisyphus refuses to return. Finally, Hermes, messenger of the gods, seizes Sisyphus’s soul, buries his body, and takes him to the Underworld, where he is condemned to forever roll a rock up a steep hill only to have it roll back down again.

In Albert Camus’s 1943 The Myth of Sisyphus, the French writer analyzes the myth through the lens of existentialism. Sisyphus, he argues, is the “absurd hero,” whose futile efforts in the Underworld are not futile at all but give meaning to a pointless, Godless life precisely through the exertion of effort with no clear goal or reward. During his moments of descent, after the rock has rolled down the hill and as he prepares to do it all over again, the hero becomes fully conscious, understanding his torment and accepting it. In these moments, he becomes “stronger than his rock” (198), his awareness of his own pain also makes his life tragic. Camus further claims that knowledge of this tragedy compels humans to strive for its opposite, happiness. This agency, this ability to choose happiness in the face of tragedy, “makes fate a human matter, which must be settled among men” (199). Sisyphus’s rock is ultimately his victory, for while his punishment may render his life absurd, it is his punishment and his alone.

Subsection 1 Summary: “Ishtar in the Underworld (Babylonia)”

Ishtar, goddess of love, wishes to visit the Underworld, which is ruled by her evil sister, Ereshkigal. When the other gods consent, she begins her journey. Arriving at the first gate, she demands the gatekeeper open it or else she will devour the living until the dead outnumber them. The gatekeeper asks permission of Ereshkigal, who grants her sister entrance only if she abides by the rules of the Underworld, leaving all earthly possessions behind. As Ishtar passes through all seven gates, she leaves everything behind until she is stripped naked. Ereshkigal then unleashes all manner of punishments on her sister so she understands the reality of life in the Underworld. Meanwhile, on earth, with the goddess of love enduring torments below, men and women—and all animals—stop making love. Plants stop reproducing, and famine is imminent. All creation will perish if Ishtar remains in the Underworld. Therefore, Ea, god of water, creates a beautiful eunuch, Asushunamir, to distract Ereshkigal. As he descends to the Underworld, the gatekeeper reports that a beautiful man has come to visit her. She immediately releases Ishtar, who exits through the seven gates just as Asushunamir enters. As Ishtar collects her crown at the first gate, Asushunamir enters the seventh and final gate, leaving behind his loincloth. Ereshkigal, seeing the naked Asushunamir, realizes she has been tricked. This is not the lover she was expecting, but a eunuch. With Ishtar returned to the world, procreation begins anew.

Subsection 2 Summary: “Marwe in the Underworld (Kenya)”

Marwe, a young girl, and her brother are responsible for keeping monkeys out of the family bean field. One day, she and her brother turn their backs on the field to get a drink of water from the pool. When they return, the monkeys have eaten all the beans. Marwe, fearing her parents’ wrath, drowns herself, sinking to the bottom of the pool until she comes to the Underworld. There, she meets an old woman, her guide to the land of the dead. Marwe lives with the woman for many years until she grows lonely for her family and the world of the living. The old woman, sensing Marwe’s grief, asks her which she prefers, hot or cold. Marwe answers cold, and the woman asks her to slip her hands into a jar of cold water. When she removes them, they are covered in jewels. She does the same with her legs and feet. The woman clothes Marwe in fine robes and returns her to the world of the living, predicting she will marry a man named Sawoye.

Back at home, her family rejoices, having thought her long dead. With her family’s newfound wealth, Marwe is soon the recipient of many suitors, but she waits for Sawoye. When he turns up, he has a skin disease that makes him ugly, but Marwe knows he has the best heart. They are soon married, and when the marriage is consummated, his disease vanishes, revealing a most beautiful man. They buy a herd of cattle and are soon wealthy and flourishing. Marwe’s neighbors and ex-suitors, however, are jealous, and one day, they attack Sawoye and kill him. Mare, having spent time in the Underworld, revives Sawoye with magic learned from the old woman, and when the neighbors try to steal their wealth, Sawoye kills them. The couple lives in prosperity for the rest of their lives, unafraid of death.

Subsection 3 Summary: “Savitri (India)”

In India, long ago, there lives a wise princess, Savitri, who is more concerned with questions of philosophy than with her many suitors. Her father, King Ashvapati, worries that she will never marry and produce an heir, but he still consents to allow his daughter to choose her own husband. She decides to choose from the ranks of holy men, and so she travels the land disguised as a sadhu (a holy hermit), impressing those she meets with her wisdom and piety. By the time she returns to the palace, word of her deeds has spread throughout the land. She announces her chosen husband: Satyavant, son of a blind king who lives among the poor and can therefore empathize with their plight. The king’s advisor informs her that Satyavant is “ordained” to die within a year of their marriage. Despite the king’s misgivings, Savitri argues that it is better to love for only a year and says that she is prepared for her fate, whatever the gods ordain. She also insists on a wedding in the style of the sadhu rather than one of luxury, and they are married in the forest wearing only simple robes.

They live a life of contemplation in the forest, and Savitri prays for strength to protect Satyavant from his ordained fate. On their one-year anniversary, they go into the deepest part of the forest to chop wood. Suddenly, Satyavant complains of a piercing pain in his head, and he collapses. As he lay dying, Yama, god of the dead, approaches to claim Satyavant’s soul. Despite Savitri’s pleas, Yama tethers Satyavant’s soul and heads to the Underworld. Savitri follows. Moved by her devotion to her husband, Yama grants Savitri one wish, to which she replies, “Restore the kingdom to Satyavant’s father” (207). Her wish is granted, but Savitri still refuses to turn back from the Land of the Dead. Nearing the gates, Yama orders her back, claiming that no man may enter his kingdom. Savitri responds that she is not a man but a woman. Impressed by her wisdom, Yama grants her another wish. Restore Satyavant’s life, she pleads, and Yama consents. Back in the forest, Savitri finds Satyavant asleep on the ground. They also find Satyavant’s father has regained both his sight and his kingdom. They live together in the forest, raising their children with humility and in poverty. In time, they both assume their fathers’ thrones, ruling with compassion and fairness. When they die, Yama sends their souls to the “highest heaven.”

Subsection 4 Summary: “Pare and Hutu (New Zealand)”

Pare, a young girl, flirts with Hutu but then rejects his advances. When Hutu leaves in anger, Pare hangs herself out of guilt. Hutu pursues her to the Underworld, but he cannot find her amidst the multitude of souls. He bends low a young tree and then swings high in the air, drawing Pare’s attention. They play this game together until they swing high enough to reach the roots that burrow down from Ao, the living world. Pare cannot live in the world of Ao without a soul, however, so Hutu pushes her soul up through the soles of her feet. Thus revived, they can both dwell in the world of the living once again, and there they marry and become the forebears of a great tribe. Only love gives Hutu the magic to restore Pare’s soul.

Subsection 5 Summary: “Sayadio in the Land of the Dead (Iroquois)”

Sayadio, a warrior, has a sister who dies. He vows to bring her back from the “land of the spirits” (210). Just as his search seems hopeless, he meets an old man who gives him a magic gourd with which to capture his sister’s spirit. In the spirit world, Sayadio encounters Tarenyawagon, who now leads the spirits in ceremonial rituals. He informs Sayadio that his sister will participate in one such ritual. When he sees his sister, however, she vanishes. Tarenyawagon then gives Sayadio a magic rattle, the sound of which draws his sister’s spirit close enough for him to capture it. He returns to his village, but as he prepares for the ceremony to reunite his sister’s spirit and body, a curious girl opens the gourd, and the spirit escapes.

Subsection 6 Summary: “The Spirit Bride (Algonquin)”

A warrior’s betrothed dies on the eve of their wedding. The warrior is so distraught that he decides to seek out the spirit world to bring her back. He journeys far to the south until he finds a wise old man living on a great plain. The man tells him that his bride passed by only the day before and that if he wishes to pursue her to the spirit world, he must leave his body behind and cross to the island of spirits in a canoe. He must also not speak to her until they both reach the island safely. The old man recites a spell that separates the warrior’s spirit from his body, and the warrior walks along the lakeshore until he finds a canoe. At the same time, he sees his bride entering her own canoe. As they cross the lake, a great storm churns the waters and sweeps away those spirits who were wicked in life. The warrior and his bride survive the storm and soon reach the shores of the “island of the blessed” (212). They are met by the Master of Life, who tells the warrior that he must return to the land of the living as he is not ready yet for the spirit island. The warrior returns, assured of seeing his bride upon his death, and he becomes a great chief.

Subsection 7 Summary: “Osiris and Isis (Egypt)”

The gods Osiris and Isis rule Egypt during a time of peace, knowledge, and prosperity. Their evil brother, Set, rules over the desert and is angered when the people begin to reclaim his land for irrigation. Jealous of his siblings, he builds a wooden casket for his brother, and during a great feast, he places the casket in the entrance hall. When Osiris arrives, Set traps him in the casket. The other gods pursue Set, but he escapes with the casket, flinging it into the Nile. Osiris suffocates inside. With the death of Osiris, evil and famine plague the land, Set’s desert kingdom reaching all the way to the Nile. Isis and Nephthys (Set’s wife) search the Nile for the casket, which has drifted past the Mediterranean Sea to the land of Byblos. Meanwhile, a tree sprouts near the casket, eventually enveloping it in its great trunk. The fragrant wood of the casket permeates the tree until it emits the same pleasant aroma.

King Melkart and Queen Astarte of Byblos order the now famous tree to be cut down and carved into a pillar for their palace. When Isis finally arrives in Byblos, only a stump remains. The king and queen summon Isis to the palace, and the goddess becomes the nursemaid of the queen’s child. During her nights in the palace, Isis chips away at the pillar and casts the wood into the fire, but the wood, enchanted by Osiris’s presence, does not burn, so Isis places the child in the fire for warmth. She tells the queen the story of Osiris and the casket, and Melkart orders the pillar split open. Isis takes the casket back to Egypt and breathes life back into Osiris, but they go into hiding, fearful of Set.

With Osiris alive again, the desert blooms and the people find peace. Once again, Set plots the murder of his brother. When he finds Osiris asleep, he cuts his body into 14 pieces and scatters them throughout Egypt. Again, disharmony and famine descend on the land. Isis reassembles Osiris’s body, but the damage is done—the people can never return to that perfect state of bliss before Set poisoned their hearts. Osiris is now lord of the Underworld, and he gives the people hope for redemption after death. Soon after, Isis gives birth to a son, Horus, destined to avenge his father’s death, but Set sends a scorpion to sting Horus, killing him. Isis brings her son back from the dead, but not before he is reunited with his father in the Underworld.

The Laws of Osiris

As ruler of the Underworld, Osiris establishes its laws. Human beings have three parts: the body, the “ka” spirit (which endures after death), and the “ba” spirit. When a human dies, the ka leaves the body and wanders the halls of Osiris to be assessed against 42 possible transgressions. The final judges of the soul are Horus, Anubis, and Thoth. If the judgment is favorable (no sins whatsoever), the soul sits by the throne of Osiris in eternal bliss waiting to be resurrected. If fewer than 42 sins are attributed to that soul, then Thoth may recommend that the soul be allowed to remain by Osiris’s side. If the person is evil and has committed more than half of the 42 sins, their soul is either reincarnated or sent to hell to be purged. Bodies are interred with food and possessions to sustain their ka while they await judgment.

Subsection 8 Summary: “Blue Jay in the Land of the Dead (Chinook)”

Blue Jay Finds a Wife

Blue Jay is a trickster who enjoys playing pranks, especially on his older sister, Ioi. One day, Ioi decides it’s time for Blue Jay to settle down and marry, insisting he choose from one of the “Supernatural People” in the land of the dead. She recommends an old woman, a chief’s wife, but Blue Jay prefers someone young and beautiful. He finds the body of a young girl, and Ioi instructs him to take her to the land of the dead to be revived. At the first village, the Supernatural People tell Blue Jay they cannot revive the girl because she’s only been dead one day. He must go to the one-day-dead village. He arrives the next day, but because the girl is now two days dead, they cannot help. He moves from village to village, but he is always one day too late. Finally, the fifth village agrees to revive the girl, ultimately making him a chief, but Blue Jay soon wishes to return to the land of the living with his new bride. Upon his return, the girl’s father, an old chief, demands that Blue Jay cut off his hair as an offering for the girl’s hand in marriage. When Blue Jay doesn’t respond, the chief gathers a group of relatives to pursue his new son-in-law, but Blue Jay turns into a bird and flies down to the land of the dead to escape. As he leaves the mortal world, the life departs from the girl’s body, and she joins him in the Underworld.

Ioi and the Ghost Husband

Ghosts, seeking a bride, settle on Blue Jay’s sister, Ioi, and they take her to the land of ghosts following a great feast. After a year, Blue Jay goes in search of his sister. Blue Jay finds his way to the land of ghosts, where he sees Ioi standing among a pile of bones, her “in-laws,” which can form into human shape but fall apart at the sound of a shout. Blue Jay, at Ioi’s request, goes fishing with his ghost brother-in-law in a shoddy boat. Ever the prankster, Blue Jay plays a game with the ghosts, making them collapse and rearranging the bones before they take form again.

To Blue Jay, the “fish” resemble twigs, and a beached “whale” seems nothing more than a log. When ghosts strip the whale of blubber, it appears to be only tree bark, but Blue Jay collapses the ghosts and takes the “blubber” for himself. Tired of Blue Jay’s pranks, the ghosts ask Ioi to send her brother home. She tasks him with putting out five prairie fires, but he doesn’t allocate the water properly, and the fifth fire consumes him. As he reaches the lakeshore at the edge of the spirit world, the canoes and fish that previously seemed shoddy and to be merely twigs now seem the sturdiest boat and finest salmon he has ever seen. The ghosts try to convince Blue Jay he is dead, but he refuses to believe them, playing his old pranks until a medicine man, tiring of his games, makes him insane.

Subsection 9 Summary: “The Greek and Roman Afterlife”

In Greek and Roman mythology, a specific process exists to guide souls into the afterlife. Relatives place a coin in the mouth of the deceased, fare to pay Charon for passage across the river Styx. Once across, the soul faces judgment from one of three judges. Once judgment is passed, the soul proceeds either to Hades to face punishment for a life of wicked deeds or to the Elysian Fields as reward for a virtuous life. Souls in the Elysian Fields may be reincarnated up to three times, but they must first drink the water of the Lethe (“forgetfulness”).

Orpheus and Eurydice

Orpheus, son of a mortal man and the Muse Calliope, is the greatest musician in the world. He falls in love with Eurydice, and they marry, but as Eurydice walks along a riverbank, a man attacks her. As she flees, she is bitten by a poisonous snake and dies. Orpheus is desperate to see his beloved again, and his songs of mourning are so moving that the gods allow him passage to the Underworld with Apollo as his guide. At the banks of the river, Orpheus charms Charon with his lyre, and the boatman ferries him across free of charge. Likewise, Hades is so entranced by Orpheus’s music that he agrees to release Eurydice back to the world of the living, with one condition: Orpheus must not look back at her until they are both safely out of the Underworld. As they ascend back to the living world, thoughts of his beloved fill Orpheus’s head, and he turns for one furtive look, thus condemning her to the Underworld forever.

Aeneas in the Underworld

Aeneas, founder of Rome, arrives in Italy seeking advice from the oracle, the Sibyl. Knowing that Aeneas would be most receptive to advice from his late father, Anchises, the oracle takes Aeneas to the Underworld to see his father. As they arrive at the border between the lands of the living and the dead, the Sybil suggests Aeneas sacrifice four bulls to Hecate, goddess of the night. The Sybil then points out a golden bough on a nearby tree and tells Aeneas to use it as payment for Charon to ferry him across the river Styx. They pass the “fields of mourning where tragic young lovers who had committed suicide wandered” (223). At a fork in the river, Aeneas places the bough into a rock, and Charon veers to the right, toward the Elysian Fields where Aeneas is reunited with his father. Anchises tells Aeneas he will be the founder of the greatest empire in history. Aeneas then drinks the waters of forgetfulness and returns to the world of the living, where he becomes the founder of ancient Rome.

Subsection 10 Summary: “Peruvian Death Myths”

Humans have two souls: the Athun Ajayo and the Jukkui Ajayo. The former “provides consciousness, movement, and other signs of life” (223). The latter maintains balance between mind and body, prevents disease, and controls dreams. The Jukkui Ajayo also leaves the body within a week after death. The Athun Ajayo returns to earth to visit the living, during which time relatives of the dead may communicate with them and leave them offerings.

Subsection 11 Summary: “Socrates on the Greco-Roman Afterlife”

In his “Speech on His Condemnation to Death,” Socrates ponders what happens after death—eternal, blissful sleep or something beyond. He argues that a journey to the afterlife would be a wonderful thing, to meet heroes and great thinkers of the past and be judged by “true judges.” Condemned to death, Socrates does not fear it but welcomes its mysteries and uncertainties, eager to learn as much from the dead as he has from the living. Finally, he asks his judges who is better off—himself in death or them in life?

Subsection 12 Summary: “Persian (Zoroastrian) Death Myths”

After death, the soul lingers for three days. On the first day, it contemplates its past words, on the second its past thoughts, and on the third its past deeds (recorded in the “House of Song”). The soul is then judged. If the good is greater than the bad, the soul goes to heaven. If they are equal, the soul enters purgatory (Hamestagen) to be cleansed. If the soul is mostly evil, it goes to hell. Souls are conducted to the Chinvat bridge by an embodiment of their conscience. For the evil, the bridge is too narrow, and they fall into hell, but souls condemned to hell may still be redeemed. At the end of times, all souls will be purged and face a final judgment.

Subsection 13 Summary: “Nachiketas (India)”

A poor shepherd wishes to offer a tribute to the gods to ensure his prosperity, but neither his cows nor his crops are sufficient. His son, Nachiketas, agrees to offer himself to Yama, lord of the dead. He descends to the Underworld and waits for three days until Yama returns. For his patience, Yama grants the young man three wishes. His first wish is that his father will recognize him upon his returns. His second is to know the location of the sacred fire that leads to heaven. Third, he wishes to know what lies beyond death. Yama grants the first two wishes, but he cannot answer the third question; he asks Nachiketas to wish for something else, offering him wealth, fame, and long life. Nachiketas refuses these offerings as illusory: “There is nothing but the mystery beyond death that interests me” (228). Yama finally tells Nachiketas that beyond death lies Brahman, the eternal One, and knowing Him is to know everything. For his wisdom, Nachiketas is granted immortality.

Subsection 14 Summary: “Jewish Death Myth”

The Rabbi’s Dead Visitor

A dead man, unaware that he’s dead, asks a rabbi for money to remarry. The rabbi shows the man his death shrouds to prove to him that he is indeed dead. The rabbi’s son worries that he, too, will haunt the world of the living, unaware of his own death, and the rabbi responds that only the dead know nothing of death. One who is aware of death is not dead.

Subsection 15 Summary: “Tibetan Death Myths”

At death, the soul is greeted by the “light of emptiness” (229). A courageous soul will merge with the light and be saved. Most, however, are too shocked by the realization of their own death and return to consciousness. For those that fail to merge, this is followed by a period of dreams and nightmares and, after that, the emergence of the “mental body,” an entity that can travel through time and space. After three-and-a-half days, the soul encounters the radiant glory of God. If the soul can face it, it is saved. If not, it continues on its journey, seven days of brutal reckoning about one’s failures. This is another chance for salvation, but failing to face one’s failures leads to reincarnation on the Wheel of Becoming. The final encounter is with Yama, lord of the dead, who will demand an account of your life. After this, the soul will face a series of lights that will determine its rebirth as either a warrior, a human, an animal, or a plant, or, with luck, a rebirth into the heavens.

Subsection 16 Summary: “Baldur (Norse)”

Baldur, son of Odin and Frigga, is tormented by dreams of his own death. Frigga asks all living things (except the mistletoe) to promise not to harm her son. Odin also seeks help from his sister Hel, goddess of the Underworld, as well as Angerbode, a sorceress who dwells there. While the gods of Asgard test Baldur’s invulnerability, Loki, god of fire, asks Frigga if she has overlooked any potential threats. The mistletoe plant, she replies, since it is harmless. Loki then fashions a dart from a mistletoe plant and instructs the blind god Hodur to “test” Baldur with it. With Loki’s help, Hodur fires the dart at Baldur, killing him. Frigga tells the other gods that whoever ransoms Baldur back from the land of the dead will become her favorite. Another one of Odin’s sons, Hermod, volunteers, riding his father’s eight-legged horse to the bridge of Gyoll, entrance to the Underworld. He enters the gates and confronts Hel, who agrees to release Baldur “if all living things would weep for the murdered god” (232). Soon, all living things—animals, birds, and even the mountains, weep for Baldur—all except for the witch Thakkt, who refuses, thus condemning Baldur to remain in the Underworld forever, his body cast out to sea on the finest Viking ship. Loki, meanwhile, flees to the mountains to escape the wrath of the gods, eventually turning into a salmon. He is captured by Thor and chained to a rock, a viper around his head that drips venom, causing horrible pain. Odin, however, knows the day will come when Loki will have his final revenge.

Subsection 17 Summary: “The Death of Moses (The Talmud)”

When Moses reaches the age of 120, Satan asks God to appoint him, Satan, angel of death, collector of souls. God asks Satan by what right he thinks he can take the soul of Moses, who is righteous in God’s eyes? He dares Satan to try, and so he approaches Moses, radiant in the light of God, and timidly asks for his soul. Moses refuses, sending Satan away in fear. Satan, angered by God and Moses’s mocking, tries again, but Moses sends him away once more by reciting a verse from the Torah. Hearing these words, God sends three angels—Gabriel, Michael, and Zagzagel—to prepare his body and to bring his soul to God. God takes Moses’s soul, and the angels bury his body in secret. Satan, still searching for Moses, asks the water, the people of the Promised Land, and the rocks if they have seen him, but no one has. When he asks the angels, they reply that they have heard “mourning on earth and rejoicing in heaven” (235), but they have not seen his body. Satan finally returns to hell, defeated.

Subsection 1 Summary: “How Rudra Destroys the Universe (India)”

The creation and destruction of the earth is cyclical; it has happened many times and will continue, each cycle consisting of the same Four Ages of Man. The world is created by Brahma, sustained by Vishnu, and then destroyed by Shiva, each cycle, or “day,” lasting over 4 million years. Each cycle, divided into 14 manvantaras, is presided over by a “teacher,” followed by a great, destructive flood. A few survivors remain to spawn the population anew. The creation cycle may also be divided into 1,000 yugas, each yuga comprising the Four Ages. At the end of the last yuga, Vishnu assumes the form of the storm god, Rudra, and plagues the earth with a 100-year drought that destroys all life and dries up the seas. The earth is then purged by the great heat of the sun. Following this, Rudra causes the rain to fall for 1,000 years, extinguishing the fires and filling the lakes and oceans to far above the earth’s surface. Brahma then sends a wind that pulls much of the moisture into the air as clouds, leaving only a “watery chaos” below, the primordial state from which recreation can occur.

Subsection 2 Summary: “The Persian Apocalyptic Myth”

Before the final days of judgment, three “saviors” will be sent to humanity. During the Period of Iron, demons will wreak havoc over the earth, causing darkness and suffering. The darkness will be pierced by a shower of stars to signal the birth of the first savior, Anshedar, born of a virgin in a sacred lake. At age 30 (marked by the sun remaining motionless for 10 days), Anshedar will meet the angels in heaven and return to preach the gospel of righteousness. He will leave the world in a better state when he dies—people will no longer die of disease, only of “age, accidents, or homicide” (240). After 1,000 years, evil will return, and once again a virgin will give birth to the second savior, Aushedarmah. During this age, evil will be “subdued” but not vanquished, and all people will become vegetarians; however, the dragon, Azhidahaka, will also arise at this time, killing one-third of all humans and animals. Azhidahaka, however, will ultimately be slain by the hero, Keresaspa. Another 1,000 years will pass, and the final savior, Saoshyant, will appear, heralding the final judgment and the “unchallenged rule” of the Wise Lord. The wicked will die in a flood of molten metal, but the righteous will be spared, and Saoshyant will preside over the final judgment. The evil will be consigned to hell, and the virtuous will “shine like the sun” (241), enjoying eternal paradise.

Subsection 3 Summary: “The Islamic Apocalyptic Myth”

In the final days, humanity will be divided into three groups: the righteous on the right, the evil on the left, and “those to the fore (foremost shall be those!)” (242). The righteous will enjoy peace, wine and fruit, and beautiful women for their companionship. The evil will suffer scorching heat and black smoke, and they will seek to borrow the light of the righteous, who will deny them. The gates of heaven will open for the virtuous, but the evil shall be doomed to hell for their transgressions against Allah.

The Hadith

The Hadith is not part of the Koran but rather “a collection of oral traditions attributed to the Prophet Muhammad and his companions” (243).

The Prophet foretells that the End of Times will be marked by the pursuit of material wealth and the abandonment of the Koran. There will be plagues and natural disasters and waves of crime. The Antichrist, Dajjal, will appear at this time and subjugate humanity. After 40 days, God will send Jesus on a white horse. He will recruit an army of the faithful to battle Dajjal, although he will not be entirely defeated until God fixes his feet into the earth and Jesus can deliver the killing blow. Jesus will rule the earth for 40 years, pray at the Dome of the Rock, and then ascend into heaven. The ascension will trigger the release of two monsters imprisoned by Alexander the Great who will destroy civilization.

At this point, God will summon two angels: Azrail, the angel of death, who will appear benevolent to the good but will tear out the souls of the wicked; and Israfil, who will blow the trumpet to signal the final days. Forty years of destruction will follow, and the righteous dead will rejoin their bodies and praise Allah. At Israfil’s final trumpet blast, God and Muhammad will descend from heaven with the scales of justice to measure all people’s evil deeds against their good. For those for whom the scales balance, they may plead to God for mercy, and He will issue a final judgment. The righteous will cross the bridge into heaven, never again knowing any suffering.

Subsection 4 Summary: “Maitreya (Tibet, Korea, Mongolia)”

In the future, the Indian subcontinent will grow large enough to accommodate all the world’s people, and food will be plentiful. Disease and war will no longer plague humanity, and only old age, sickness, and “elimination of waste” will remain (245). During this time, people will live to the age of 500. One ruler, Shankha, will spread the word of the Buddha, and the future Buddha, Maitreya, will be born. When he enters the world, it will be his final incarnation, with Nirvana awaiting him at the end. He will be attended by 84,000 people, and Brahma will declare the heavenly Truth. During this time, people will live monastic lifestyles, seeking only enlightenment, Maitreya will preach for over 60,000 years, and all humanity will reach Nirvana.

Subsection 5 Summary: “Ragnarök: The Twilight of the Gods (Norse)”

Odin has foreseen the end of the universe, including the destruction of the gods. Omens can be seen in the behavior of the animals—sensing the coming twilight, they will gather food in the spring, months earlier than usual. Three harsh winters will follow, and then massive earthquakes and floods caused by Loki freeing himself from his chains. He will gather allies and attack the gods’ home of Asgard. Multitudes will die with Odin unable to help them, for he will be battling Loki and his hordes of monsters. Thor, god of thunder, will slay a great sea serpent but not before it spits venom, killing him. All the gods and all their foes will die in the great battle, and darkness will fall over the earth. At the end of this battle, the eternal god, Alfadur, will recreate the earth as well as a new man and woman to repopulate it.

Subsection 6 Summary: “North American Apocalyptic Myths”

Pawnee

At the beginning, Tirawa Atius, lord of all things, set a buffalo in the sky, and each year, it loses a hair. When its last hair is shed, the world will end, marked by meteor showers and the dimming of the sun and moon. Another sign of the end is when the South Star eclipses the North Star. The god of the West will issue the final command to destroy the world, and the gods of the East, North, and South will obey. At this time, the stars will fall to the earth and become people, and any remaining survivors will ascend to the heavens and become stars.

Cherokee

The earth is suspended over the waters by rawhide, but over time, the rawhide will wither and crack, and the earth will fall back into the waters. All things will perish, but after the destruction, the Creator will pull the earth from the waters and recreate it once again.

Subsection 7 Summary: “The Old Testament (Daniel 11:40-12:13)”

When the end times come, the King of the South will ride forth and attack the lands of Egypt and Libya and raid their treasuries (Edom, Moav, and the sons of Ammon will survive, however). At this time, the archangel Michael will arise, and hard times will follow. Some will be saved, while others will be doomed to “everlasting disgrace.” It is ordained that Daniel shall keep these secrets sealed until the end times.

Subsection 8 Summary: “The New Testament”

Excerpts from the Gospel of Mark

• The Eschatological Discourse (Mark 13:1-4)

One of Jesus’s disciples remarks on a series of great stones and buildings, to which Jesus replies that everything, buildings included, will be destroyed one day. Later, Peter, James, John, and Andrew inquire about omens that might foretell this great destruction.

• The Beginning of Sorrows (Mark 13:5-32)

Jesus foretells the coming of war and famine, a time when Judaeans must flee to the mountains, the “beginning of the birth pangs” (251). Beware of deceivers, he warns, false prophets using his name. His followers will be brought before the authorities and beaten, but fear not, he assures them, for the Holy Spirit will speak for them, and those who stand firm will be saved. During this time, “the sun will be darkened, the moon will lose its brightness, the stars will come falling” (251), but this is when the Son of Man will descend from heaven with his angels to gather the chosen. No one but God knows the precise hour and day.

Excerpts from the Apocalypse (The Revelation to John)

The following are excerpted from various chapters of the Book of Revelations.

The statue of the beast will be incarnated, and anyone who refuses to worship it shall be slain. All citizens shall be branded with the number of the beast, and anyone not bearing the mark shall be forbidden from buying or selling anything. And the number of the beast shall be 666.

The heavens shall open, and a warrior judge with his blood-stained cloak will come down riding a white horse and brandishing a sword to strike down the pagans. He is the “King of Kings and the Lord of Lords” (253). Then, an angel shall summon all the birds to a great feast—the flesh of kings and generals, of horses and of all citizens, great and small.

The skies shall open, and the One shall be revealed on his great throne. He shall open the book of life—the record of all peoples’ lives and deeds—by which all souls shall be judged. Those not listed in the book of life shall be cast in the lake of fire.

The narrator then witnesses a great rebirth, a new heaven and earth descending from heaven, and a “holy city” in which God shall dwell with his people. Death and sadness will be things of the past. God—“the Alpha and the Omega, the Beginning and the End” (254)—shall grant paradise to the virtuous, but the wicked shall be cast into the “burning lake of sulphur” (254).

Excerpt from the Second Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians (2 Thessalonians 2:1-12)

Paul warns of the “Great Revolt,” a time when the “Enemy” will rise, claiming to be greater than God. This time has not come yet, but His plans are in motion, and He awaits the appointed time. With the rise of the “Rebel,” Satan will deceive the people with false miracles. God will allow this, for anyone who can separate the false miracles from the true word of God will be saved.