On the Genealogy of Morals

Following the death of Jesus, Christians adhered to a series of ethical laws, including abstaining from eating the blood of animals and certain sexual practices. These laws persisted for centuries. The Christian moral tradition refers to the values and principles outlined in the Bible, which have been synthesized and interpreted by different Christian denominations and individuals throughout history. The Bible encompasses many moral directives, and the interpretation and application of those directives has evolved with cultural and historical shifts. The pervasive influence of Christian ethics continues in contemporary societal attitudes and concepts of morality. However, the principles of Christian morality have changed as new understandings and problems emerged throughout history.

The dissemination of the Christian religion led to the evolution and adaptation of its moral framework. As Christianity spread outward from the Middle East to all parts of Europe, many thinkers and translators worked together to reconcile classical teachings, such as those of Aristotle and Plato, and the Bible. Classical views of ethics and the morality of the Bible were brought together to form a philosophical foundation upon which the Roman Catholic Church continues to utilize in the 21st century. During the Middle Ages, Catholic theologians also developed complex moral theories, such as the relationship between virtuous and charitable conduct (often called “good works”) and salvation, and the categorization of various types of sin, including the seven deadly sins: lust, gluttony, greed, sloth, wrath, envy, and pride. Nietzsche asserts in On the Genealogy of Morals that religion was enticing for its ability to relieve the suffering of the lower classes.

In the 16th century, with the advent of the Protestant Reformation, conceptions of Christian morality underwent significant shifts amongst the Protestant theologians. Martin Luther wrote On the Freedom of a Christian (1520), in which he asserted that believers are saved purely by faith, not by “good works,” and that morality is a product of God’s love. John Calvin challenged this idea by arguing that Christians have an obligation to live in a way that emphasizes God’s sovereignty; every action was seen as having either a positive or negative moral value. The ongoing fracturing of Christian sects in the modern age led to even more interpretations of morality.

Despite the pervasive nature of Christian morality, it began to attract considerable criticism during the Age of Enlightenment. Toward the end of the 18th century, Thomas Paine and Voltaire challenged organized religion in the name of rationalism and philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau asserted that organized Christian morality could contribute to intolerance and corruption. The 19th century ushered in an age of notable change in all areas of human life, including Christian morality. The industrial revolution brought an increased focus on productivity and achievement. The discussion around and eventual abolition of slavery led to varying interpretations of the Bible and a new inquiry into whether Christian morality should drive political movements. Karl Marx called religion the Opium des Volkes, or “opium of the masses,” and saw morality as a tool to control the working class. Sigmund Freud proposed that morality and religion were manifestations of human desire.

This was the context within which Nietzsche formulated his arguments about good and evil. Nietzsche criticized elements of Christian morality, such as meekness and humility. He believed that Christian morality kept people docile and submissive and that concepts like “good” and “bad” found their origin in privilege and power. In On the Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche presented a counter- morality which emphasizes strength, creativity, and individual will.