Novum Organum

An axiom refers to a principle or conclusion asserted to be true. Bacon is concerned with axioms of different sizes: Small ones might summarize specific observations into a pattern, whereas big ones might resemble broad theories or first principles. Bacon sees axioms as synonymous with knowledge in his famous connection of knowledge and power, with “effects” representing the power part: A true axiom will allow one to produce an effect or, in other words, to manipulate the real world.

By an “effect,” Bacon usually refers to the enacting of a change in the physical world and/or to a tangible action enabled by acquired knowledge. The ability to devise a new experiment or the creation of a new invention are both examples of significant effects. Effects are connected to axioms in Bacon’s understanding, with the latter vital to the former. This faith in humans’ ability to positively influence the world around them is emblematic of Bacon’s Conviction in Human Progress Through the Pursuit of Knowledge.

Empiricism is an epistemological approach that holds that knowledge comes from sensory observations. Bacon’s ideas fit this category, but he did not consider himself an empiricist; he uses the word in a narrower sense to imply interest in material observation at the expense of broader knowledge. Today, “empiricism” refers to an evidence-based approach to scientific enquiry. Bacon’s ideas were important in the development of empirical science, although his actual methodology would not be considered empirically sound today.

Epistemology refers to the study of knowledge itself, including its nature, purpose, and the methods used to seek or disseminate it. Bacon would not have used this word to describe his interest in knowledge and its history and purpose, but it encompasses much of what he considers in Novum Organum. Similarly, a movement such as Scholasticism would not have referred to itself as an epistemological movement, but as an approach to learning and knowledge, it can be classified as such.

Induction is a type of reasoning often seen as the opposite of deduction. Inductive reasoning begins with data or evidence and uses this to construct a pattern or generalization from which it builds a theory or paradigm. In deductive reasoning, a paradigm or theory serves as the basis for constructing an experiment that is used to produce evidence regarding the theory. Bacon describes inductive reasoning as using observations to produce small axioms that build up to larger axioms, whereas deductive reasoning uses larger axioms to create smaller ones and often applies its premises retrospectively. A good explanation of these two systems according to Bacon appears in Aphorism 19. Bacon asserts that only his method can facilitate “true induction.”

In modern usage, logic refers broadly to the use of mental reasoning, but Bacon uses it to refer to Aristotelian logic specifically—predominantly syllogism and deduction. Logic in Bacon’s depiction is purely abstract and separate from physical evidence. Bacon deploys logic in the modern sense of the word (i.e., he appeals to rational thought) to critique “logic” in the specific sense of Aristotelian deductive reasoning.

The general meaning of this term is the acceptance or urging of doubt regarding the truth of something. Bacon’s usage typically coincides with the specific meaning of this term in philosophy, which is the assertion that some knowledge is completely unknowable. The ultimate version of this claim is that due to the subjectivity of human experience, nothing can truly be said to be known with certainty. Bacon is critical of skepticism, acknowledging the fallibility of human understanding but arguing that it can be circumvented with the right tools (i.e., his own system).

Medieval Scholasticism was an approach to philosophy and knowledge that rose to prominence in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries CE. It centered on interpretations of Aristotelianism placed into a Christian context, and it flourished in the monastic schools of the period. Central to its doctrine was in-depth and comparative examination of existing texts. Its popularity waned from the 16th and 17th centuries onward. Bacon references Scholasticism explicitly a few times in Novum Organum, arguing, for instance, that “the scholastic philosophy […] ground down the sciences by their numerous treatises, more than they increased their weight” (26). This disparagement is characteristic of Bacon’s critique of The Flawed Foundations of Existing Epistemology, which Scholasticism exemplifies.

The sophists were teachers in 4th- and 5th-century BCE ancient Greece; they were rewarded with payment but also great esteem. “Sophism” today has come to be associated with false, if clever-sounding, arguments. However, it originally referred to the approaches used in the sophist teaching culture, including logic and deductive reasoning. Bacon and other scholars who attacked this approach as inherently fallacious influenced the shift in the meaning of the word.