64 pages • 2 hours read
Francis BaconNovum Organum
Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1620A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Book 1, Aphorisms 78-130Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Book 1, Aphorisms 78-92 Summary
Bacon introduces the next section: the reasons, or causes, why current thinking has developed so poorly. He first identifies the limited time available in history, specifically in societies where learning has flourished, and the limited attention of people, who must also deal with other matters (for example, civic pursuits) or see natural science as a tool to serve other purposes rather than a priority.
Bacon asserts that the goal of natural science should be to serve humanity through new inventions that provide material improvements. He criticizes those who instead serve their own reputation or wealth. Bacon argues that currently, not only is there no clear end goal, but the path itself is confusing and circular. He identifies three established approaches of investigation: derivative work, based solely on existing findings; logic, using itself rather than external evidence as proof; and working from experience, the best approach. However, Bacon says that when this is not methodical and deliberate, it is like fumbling in the dark, as the broader context can’t be seen.
The next causes center on a lack of motivation to conduct meaningful research. The first is snobbishness about material observation being beneath the heights of the human mind. Secondly, misplaced reverence for antiquity, great men, and unanimity distract people from seeking new knowledge. Thirdly, people rest satisfied with existing progress, such as clocks, bread, and music. Bacon says that despite appearances, little knowledge has actually been achieved: Existing inventions draw on very few axioms. He says strange interests like alchemy and magic have arisen because there is a hunger for new ideas, reflecting the dearth beneath the façade of plentiful knowledge. Aphorism 86 expands this idea of a façade: Admiration of existing arts and sciences has been increased by how skillfully they have been presented. Meanwhile, competing new approaches have often been patently foolish (for example, promising immortality), making people more inclined to venerate mainstream ideas and dismiss further enquiry.
Bacon critiques the behavior of current and past philosophers and scientists. Due to concern for their reputations, they claim that whatever their methods fail to shed light on must be unknowable rather than critically examining their approach. Bacon also attacks apathy and blinkered focus—considering one thing (such as magnets) in isolation while ignoring other things that have the same properties and thus information to offer.
Bacon argues that superstition constantly damages philosophy and science. He says that religion and scientific study should be kept separate and lists the ways in which attempting to impose the former on the latter has been damaging. Theology is inherently conservative and might wrongly claim that science is unholy or unnecessary because everything can be ascribed to God. Bacon says that some fear that science might challenge religion, but he refutes this, arguing that science serves religion by examining God’s work and that God does not depend on human authentication.
Bacon points to the cautious nature of organizations, which is understandable for civic bodies that need to please the people but inhibits scientific organizations. Innovation is not appealing, as there is little reward for scientific progress: Most people can’t understand it, and civic figures such as princes often falsely take credit for material progress. Fatalism regarding what can be achieved in a single generation also causes people to give up large aims, turning to relatively insignificant topics. He uses this point to introduce the theme for the next major portion of Book 1: the importance of having hope for what humans can achieve. He claims that everything he is going to present here and in other works will show that there is much hope for the development of knowledge.
Book 1, Aphorisms 93-114 Summary
In these aphorisms, Bacon gives a list of reasons why humanity should have hope for the progress of knowledge. He claims that God is an agent of progress and thus humanity should be too; moreover, he says that the Bible prophesies upcoming progress. He explains that existing problems merely stem from human error, which anyone brave enough to work from a clean slate can therefore correct. This, though, will involve coming up with a new store of information on natural history and a new way of gaining experiential evidence, such as new experiments. Bacon details the old ways and how they should be changed. He argues, for example, that it is important to note observations of not just the thing being studied but also how it interacts with forces.
He continues by saying that current experiments usually narrowly focus on profit but that changing this will cultivate hope: When experiments purely pursue knowledge, they will never disappoint, as they always yield information.
However, if methodologically sound experiments will give great results, the human mind will still need help to interpret these. Bacon proposes a solution: a methodical approach that collects and orders information, which is then used to build axioms from which greater material effects can be produced. People should not prematurely seek grand axioms: Intermediate axioms must process to bigger ones. He argues that intermediate axioms are most beneficial to humans anyway (small ones are more like observations, and big ones are too abstract). They thus represent great hope for human progress.
Proper induction is another source of hope and can be achieved through his method of carefully categorizing information—including, not ignoring, exceptions. This work requires enormous diligence but can help humanity discover new axioms and entirely new ideas.
Bacon also points to prior progress as a reason to hope. So far, discoveries have mostly come from luck, and people often stop upon creating a useful invention, halting further progress. For example, printing was invented a long time after ink because no one thought to thicken ink so it didn’t run. He suggests that the human mind is naturally poor at inventing—overly pleased with itself and unimaginative. However, there is hope for discovering a multitude of inventions when the mind uses an aid or method.
He argues that the amount of work required for this is reasonable; people have poured enormous labor into existing flawed approaches, and unlike theoretical approaches, his proposal is confined to studying what’s actually in the world. He points to what he has already achieved in founding his new method despite his limitations: He is busy and unwell and has no precedent to guide him. He argues that those following him can achieve even more and that there is little to lose and much to gain in following his proposed approach.
Book 1, Aphorisms 115-128 Summary
Bacon explains that having deconstructed existing systems, his next step is to prepare the reader for his own method, managing expectations and giving caveats to allow consideration from a receptive standpoint.
Firstly, he is not trying to found a philosophical sect giving grand answers or producing great effects immediately. He won’t have time in his lifetime to finish the work of the instauration, but he is sowing the seeds for further work. He also concedes that there may be some small flaws in his presentation, but he argues that these are inevitable in a new approach and insignificant compared to the foundational errors of current enquiry. He warns that his method will require examining lowly or ordinary things: It must include everything. Some topics might seem pointless, but it is necessary to pursue knowledge for its own sake without immediately wanting to profit from it. This approach will eventually yield axioms and then effects. He says it is hypocritical of Scholastic critics to point to a lack of effect anyway when their approach is so theoretical.
Bacon then argues that his total dismissal of ancient learning is in fact respectful to its followers, as the errors do not reflect the skills of the scholars but rather the underlying nature of the study. He is not suggesting he is better than other scholars but rather endorsing his approach as a tool that will enable anyone to achieve more. He compares this to use of a physical tool; the talent of someone using a compass to draw a circle cannot be compared to the talent of someone drawing by hand. The fundamental newness of his method means it is not surprising that it will discover new things.
He also reassures that his caution against leaping to conclusions will not create confusion but will lead to greater certainty. Besides this, his method will cover all possible subjects, as everything can be categorized and compared.
Finally, Bacon claims that he is not trying to totally get rid of current ways of learning. They serve some purposes—for example, teaching students, encouraging discussion, and aiding civil life. However, they cannot be used for pursuit of new knowledge, which is what he aims to do. His proposed approach should therefore be considered a separate entity serving a distinct purpose.
Book 1, Aphorisms 129-130 Summary
In the final section of Book 1, Bacon presents reasons why his proposal is so valuable, specifying that he is not doing so to elevate himself but rather because it is important to bring others to his cause, as their labor is required.
Firstly, he argues, inventions are one of the best things that can be achieved, benefitting all of humanity rather than specific people in one place or time (as civic industry does). They have no negative impact on the world and imitate divine creation. Bacon compares different civilizations and asserts that European cultures are superior to others because of what invention has brought them. He points to three inventions that have changed the world since ancient times: gunpowder, printing, and the compass. He concludes that invention is a noble pursuit, as it does not aim to elevate oneself, or even one’s country, but all of humanity. He says that if the discovery or invention of a specific thing deserves praise, the invention of a method enabling the discovery of everything merits even more. However, Bacon gives a caveat to this: The pureness of the actual process should be celebrated above potential results.
He then offers reassurance that the possible powers afforded by his approach are no more prone to being used for evil than anything else in the world. He describes the resulting progress as a natural gaining of humanity’s God-given power over nature. Religion and reason will direct his method’s gains to good use.
He concludes Book 1 by saying that he is now ready to explain the approach itself. He suggests that people may naturally come to his method anyway, if they have proper information and experience, a blank state, and the patience not to leap to conclusions. However, laying it out clearly will be a great help. He reiterates that his method is not necessarily perfect or complete, so he encourages others to add to it.
Book 1, Aphorisms 78-130 Analysis
In this section of Book 1, Bacon delves into all his main themes, beginning with a focus on The Flawed Foundations of Existing Epistemology—part of his argument in favor of An Inductive Approach to Knowledge.
In Aphorism 78, Bacon describes how “the causes of errors, and of such perseverance in them [are] numerous and powerful” (26): He considers these flaws deeply embedded. Some of these “causes” relate to the four “idols” identified earlier in Book 1. For example, people’s contentment with existing discoveries is a tendency that could be linked to his “idols of the tribe” (Aphorisms 45-52). Many of his examples relate to the “idols of the theatre” (Aphorisms 61-65). For instance, he attacks “the reverence for antiquity, and the authority of men who have been esteemed great in philosophy” (29), arguing that this holds back innovation. He thus builds on the groundwork established earlier in Book 1; having presented his idols as broad categories of problems, Bacon now identifies the specific examples he deems responsible for the poor state of current enquiry.
Another “idol of the theatre” Bacon returns to here is “superstition, and a blind and immoderate zeal for religion” (33). Given the centrality of religion (specifically Anglican Christianity) to Jacobean life and his own devout Anglicanism, Bacon does not dismiss Christianity in the way he dismisses the ideas of, for example, Aristotle. He does not attack religion itself but rather the way some people have used it: “[R]eligion, which has so much influence on men’s minds, has been led and hurried to oppose [natural philosophy] through the ignorance of some and the imprudent zeal of others” (33). Bacon gives historic examples of religion holding back scientific development out of fear; the Greeks who explored the science of storms “were condemned as guilty of impiety toward the gods” (33). However, Bacon argues that, like studying the scriptures, scientific enquiry is a godly endeavor: “[O]ne exhibits the will and the other the power of God” (33). The idea that scientific advancement reveals the work of God became popular during the Scientific Revolution, used as an argument in favor of progress.
As well as using history to give specific examples backing up his assertions, Bacon also argues that history itself is one of the causes of error. In particular, he notes the limited span of human history and the limited times and places where learning has flourished: “[W]e can only reckon up three revolutions and epochs of philosophy. 1. The Greek. 2. The Roman. 3. Our own, that is the philosophy of the western nations of Europe […] the intermediate ages of the world were unfortunate both in the quantity and richness of the sciences produced” (26). He imposes a Eurocentric view onto this, prizing the values of his own cultural background and revealing his selective knowledge of history. For example, his Elizabethan education would have centered on Greek and Latin classical learning; his Christianity would have informed his values and knowledge.
Bacon weaves these criticisms of existing epistemology into another central theme, Conviction in Human Progress Through the Pursuit of Knowledge. He argues that “by far the greatest obstacle to the advancement of the sciences [is] men’s despair and the idea of impossibility” (34). Bad actors encourage such pessimism, excusing their own shortcomings by instilling “a belief that whatever has not yet been invented and understood [i.e., by them] can never be so hereafter” (32). However, many “prudent” people also fall in to despair, recognizing the many obstacles to scientific progress, which include “the shortness of life, the deception of the senses, and weakness of the judgment” (34). These are factors Bacon himself has identified in this section as causes of poor progress.
Bacon appears to present a conundrum here, as he agrees that these issues present real challenges but argues that hope is absolutely necessary to motivate scientific enquiry. However, this is the conundrum Bacon’s Novum Organum is specifically intended to solve. Bacon suggests that the Great Instauration will overcome many of the causes of error, thus offering hope and inspiring more scientific enquiry. This is true of both the individual scientist or philosopher and of society writ large. For example, he presents Baconian method as a tool (a “new organon”) that extends and improves human capabilities, so inherent human flaws like “weakness of judgment” can all be overcome. Meanwhile, the Great Instauration will undo the damaging reverence for antiquity or existing authorities, as well as other causes of error rooted in epistemological history.
As he moves through his list of reasons to hope, Bacon thus weaves in discussion of his own method, painting it as an inseparable part of his conviction in human progress. In Aphorism 92, where he begins his list, he says that the “most cogent” source of hope is the “particulars” or details of his own method, as outlined later. Aphorisms 100-107 in particular offer detailed descriptions of Bacon’s own approach and the ways it should inspire hope by “bidding farewell to the errors of past ages, or by their correction” (39). Bacon’s conviction in human progress and his suggested proposals are each presented as necessary for the other.
Bacon’s conviction in human progress not only informs his exhortation to hope but also his conviction in hope’s importance. He again explores knowledge and power, as introduced in Aphorism 3 of Book 1, presenting both as important. In Aphorism 129, he claims that invention (which offers power over nature) is “the most distinguished of human actions” (48), but he also argues that true knowledge is “more dignified in itself than all the advantage to be derived from discoveries” (50). He again presents these as fundamentally connected, with material effects (or power, manifested as invention) only possible through knowledge. This time, Bacon also adds a religious element to his argument:
Let men learn […] the difference that exists between the idols of the human mind and the ideas of the divine mind. […] Truth, therefore, and utility, are here perfectly identical, and the effects are of more value as pledges of truth than from the benefit they confer on men (47).
Bacon thus suggests that his method’s ability to produce practical results is significant because it shows a divinely approved understanding. Knowledge, and by extension Baconian method, is again presented as spiritually noble—a recognition of God’s power.
In this section, but also the rest of Book 1, Bacon presents extensive arguments on both the flaws of current epistemology and his conviction in human progress—two apparently conflicting ideas. Throughout, Bacon weaves in his proposed solution to this. He therefore finishes Book 1 by introducing the primary theme of Book 2: It is “time […] to lay down the art of interpreting nature” and present his aid to progress (50), the actual “new organon.”
