79 pages • 2 hours read
AnonymousNjals Saga
Fiction | Novel | Adult | Published in 1280A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Background
Historical Context: Medieval Iceland
Norwegian families settled in Iceland in the late 9th and 10th centuries. Iceland was uninhabited at the time, except for a few Irish monks who made their way to the island to live as hermits. The first Norwegian who arrived in Iceland around 860 was Hrafba-Floki (known simply as Floki) Vilgerdarson, who landed in the west fjords after navigating around much of the island. Several Swedish sailors had also circled Iceland before this, but they had not made landfall. Floki gave the island its name and returned to Norway after spending two winters there; he didn’t have many positive things to say about Iceland. True settlers came to Iceland circa 874 from Norway, and scholars estimate that around 30,000 people colonized the land over the next six decades.
This phase of early colonization is called the “Age of Settlement.” It concludes with the founding of the Althing (Iceland’s parliament) in 930. The extant Landnámabók (Book of Settlements) supplies details about these early colonists and their lives, including some of the individuals mentioned in Njal’s Saga who are descended from the first settlers. Those settlers fled the oppressive rule of the Norwegian monarch, Harald Fairhair, who consolidated power in Norway circa 885 when he subdued regional chieftains under his rule. The Heimskringla (Saga of Harald Fairhair) recounts this unification of Norway. Njal’s Saga provides evidence of strong ties between Iceland and Norway, with many of the primary characters spending time in Norway, either in exile or seeking their fortunes (Shahin, Ingólfur. “A Complete History of Iceland.” Guide to Iceland). One of the secondary protagonists who appears early on in the saga, Hrut, for example, spends time in Norway before his marriage to Unn, where he had traveled to recover his inheritance.
Instead of a monarchy, Iceland’s settlers established a commonwealth divided into four districts, because of their unpleasant experiences under Harald Fairhair. These Icelanders established the parliamentary body called the Althing in 930, which was modeled on similar, but smaller, local assemblies in Scandinavia called “things” (“Althingi Travel Guide.” Guide to Iceland). Medieval Iceland, as Njal’s Saga suggests, was therefore a very legalistic society, as reflected in the affairs of the annual Althing and the district assemblies that occur throughout the saga. The Icelanders deemed Iceland settled circa 930, and after this, outsiders became less welcome. At this point, Iceland entered the “Saga Age” (circa 930-1150). This period is the setting for the various sagas, composed between about 1180-1500, including Njal’s Saga. The “Sturlung Age” followed, which witnessed increased violence in the form of blood feuds and rising corruption. As a result, Norway annexed an internally weakened Iceland in 1262. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were united under one monarchy (the “Kalmar Union”) in 1327, so Iceland came under Danish control and remained Denmark’s colony until its independence in 1944.
Life in medieval Iceland was centered on the farm, in keeping with Scandinavian tradition, and as illustrated in the family sagas. Gunnar and Njal, for instance, both live on farms and own secondary lands from which they harvest resources, like hay or wood. Icelanders depended on livestock, like cattle, to survive the winters, though medieval Iceland was warmer than it is in the modern age. Njal’s Saga, for example, describes hay meadows and forested areas through which many of the protagonists travel. Homes, known as longhouses, were constructed out of turf or wood, and they accommodated extended families, as seen in Njal’s Saga. Njal’s sons live with him even after their marriages, as do numerous others who fall victim to the burning at Bergthorshvol. The central longhouse might be accompanied by outbuildings like storage sheds and stables, though such facilities were also sometimes attached to the home. Women acted as managers of the household, which Njal’s Saga indicates on multiple occasions. Njal’s wife, Bergthora, for instance, runs her home with a strong and steady hand and has the authority to hire help and give orders to household servants. Hallgerd, Gunnar’s nefarious wife, does likewise.
Literary Context: Icelandic Family Sagas
Icelandic sagas were authored sometime between 1180 and 1500 in Old Norse. There are three types of sagas: family sagas, kings’ sagas, and mythical-heroic sagas. Family sagas center the history of Iceland’s settlement and early families during the ninth and tenth centuries (Groeneveld, Emma. “Saga.” World History Encyclopedia).Figures who appear in these sagas were historical, and their identities can be corroborated by other sources, like the Icelandic Landnámabók (Book of Settlement).
Njal’s Saga is a family saga that covers Icelandic history involving the families who settled the island and their descendants. For example, the anonymous author of Njal’s Saga often begins chapters by introducing protagonists and their family lineage stretching back multiple generations, sometimes to Norway. For instance, when the author introduces one of the central protagonists and the saga’s namesake, Njal, he writes:
There was a man named Njal; he was the son of Thorgeir Gollnir, the son of Thorolf. Njal’s mother was Asgerd, the daughter of the Norwegian hersir Askel the Silent; she had come out to Iceland and settled to the east of the Markarfljot river (35).
This method of introduction indicates that the author’s audience was interested in these genealogies that introduced their ancestors. The family’s details often celebrated their accomplishments, characters, or skills. Yet, other figures are described as being nefarious and worthy of critique, which speaks to Icelandic social values and codes of honor that could tarnish people’s reputation long after their lifetime.
These family sagas provide snapshots of Icelandic family life, including blood feuds and the legalistic nature of medieval Icelandic society. They also indicate the strong links between Iceland and Norway, from where the island’s original settlers hailed. The genealogical introductions also stress marriage alliances and trace lineages through paternal and maternal lines, indicating that Norse women played important roles in their families, making them worthy of recognition in these descriptions. Also, the importance of family ties appears in the sagas as well as in descriptions of traditional Icelandic farm life, with extended families residing together and married sons remaining with their natal families.
It is important to note that the saga writers likely took some liberties in their storytelling, blending oral tradition, myth, and their relatively new Christian values with other pagan principles to create a unique literary tradition. The author of Njal’s Saga, for example, stresses the supernatural association with pagan burial mounds when he recounts how Hogni and Skarphedin saw Gunnar of Hlidarendi sitting up in his mound, facing the moonlight, and reciting traditional Norse poetry, which they interpret as a call to action and vengeance. The author similarly stresses Njal’s gift of second sight while also describing Iceland’s conversion to Christianity, in which he claims Njal played a prominent role, turning him into an admirable Christian figure. Indeed, when Njal’s body is recovered after the burning, his corpse is untouched, much like the incorruptibility of saints’ bodies in medieval hagiographic tradition, which is taken as a sign of their virtue.
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