History of the Peloponnesian War

Pericles (c. 495-429 BC) was a statesman, orator, and general who led Athens from the end of the Persian wars through the second year of the Peloponnesian war. He was an ardent supporter of democracy and the arts, and Athens flourished under his leadership, which is referred to as the Golden Age of Athens. He died of the plague in 429, two-and-a-half years into the war.

In The History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides praises Pericles as Athens’ most competent leader, saying, “it was under him that Athens was at her greatest” (163). During peacetime, he “wisely led and firmly guarded” the city (163). After the war broke out, his estimation of Athens’ strengths and needs appears, according to Thucydides, to have been accurate. Pericles recommended that Athens be patient, rely on its navy, and not attempt to expand its empire while at war with Sparta. Thucydides notes that Pericles’ successors did the exact opposite of what he had recommended, and the city lost the war.

Thucydides’ description of Pericles suggests Thucydides believed that states, whatever form of government they practiced, required leaders who could wield power with integrity. He writes of Pericles, “because of his position, intelligence, and his known integrity,” he “could respect the liberty of the people and at the same time hold them in check. It was he who led them, rather than they who led him, and, since he never sought power from any wrong motive, he was under no necessity of flattering them” (164). Thucydides continues that Pericles accurately assessed the mood of his city and knew when “they were going too far in a mood of over-confidence” and “would bring back to them a sense of their dangers” (164). Similarly, “when they were discouraged for no good reason he would restore their confidence” (164). In other words, Pericles used his power for the good of the city and its citizens, a marked difference from his successors.

Cleon was an Athenian general who died in the battle of Amphipolis in 422 BC. Thucydides betrays dislike for Cleon through his portrayal of him in The History of the Peloponnesian War. He says Cleon “was remarkable among the Athenians for the violence of his character,” though he exercised considerable influence over the people of Athens (212). In Book 3, after the revolt of Mytilene, Cleon argues for massacring the population of Mytilene in retaliation for the city’s revolt. The basis of his argument is that Athens is an imperial power, and “a sense of decency” should only be felt towards friends not enemies (216). Ultimately, his motion is struck down.

In Book 4, when Sparta asks Athens to make peace, Cleon convinces the Athenians to demand back land that Sparta had claimed in a previous war with Athens. When Sparta asks to discuss the points with a committee, Cleon accuses them of being insincere in their intentions, and talks break down. Later, when Athens runs into difficulty with the siege of Sphacteria, near the Peloponnesian territory of Pylos, and Sparta rescinds its offer of peace, Athenians blame Cleon for having refused Sparta’s earlier peace offer. He deflects attention to Nicias, who Cleon personally dislikes, and blames him for being too weak to capture the territory. Cleon then boasts that he would have succeeded within twenty days, had he been in command. When Nicias shocks Cleon by ceding command to him, Cleon is forced to lead a force in the battle of Sphacteria. Improbably, the Spartans surrender, and Cleon returns to Athens triumphant.

Cleon’s success, Thucydides writes, “convinced him of his intelligence,” and at Amphipolis, Spartan general Brasidas is able to lure him into making mistakes (351). In the ensuing battle, Cleon is killed after attempting to flee.

Brasidas is a Spartan general who defeats the Athenians at Amphipolis with daring tactics. Thucydides seems to hold him in high regard for his bravery, military savvy, and strong leadership. Thucydides portrays him as an effective communicator who was able to incite Athens’ allies to revolt by promising to liberate them.

Brasidas dies in 422 in the battle of Amphipolis, where Cleon is also killed. Thucydides contrasts the two generals, noting that Cleon’s soldiers did not trust his leadership and he appeared to be running away when he was killed. Brasidas, on the other hand, received high honors after his death from the people of Amphipolis. Thucydides notes that they held his funeral at the public expense, and “[t]hey gave him the official title of founder of their colony” (355).

Nicias is an Athenian general who serves in the Peloponnesian War. The victorious Syracusans put him to death in Sicily in 413. Thucydides portrays him as having been occasionally wise and possibly well-intentioned but often ineffectual. His notable accomplishment during the war was negotiating peace with Sparta after the battle of Amphipolis.

Nicias opposed Athens sending an expedition to Sicily but was out-argued by Alcibiades. When Nicias attempted to discourage Athens by noting what a tremendous undertaking it would involve, the city instead became excited by the prospect of a massive expedition, “and just the opposite of what Nicias had imagined took place” (425). When operations in Sicily begin to fall apart, Nicias asks to be relieved of duty, but his request is denied. Ultimately, his uncertainty and delays, as well as his arguments with Demosthenes, cause the entire expedition to be destroyed.

Alcibiades is an Athenian general who changes loyalties several times over the course of the war. According to Thucydides, he is an excellent military leader, but his character is questionable, and this causes the Athenians to mistrust him and put their faith in other, less capable rulers.

Alcibiades supports the Sicilian expedition, arguing in favor of it, which is in opposition to Nicias. Alcibiades is selected to sail with the Athenian fleet as a general. The night before the expedition launches, religious statuary are defaced, and Alcibiades is accused. Thucydides does not comment on whether these accusations have merit. Alcibiades is permitted to travel with the fleet, but the charges are pending. Eventually, he is recalled to Athens to face the charges, and he flees to the Peloponnese. He provides the Spartans with a recipe for defeating Athens but ultimately falls out with them and befriends Tissaphernes, a Persian who has been supporting Sparta. After oligarchy is installed at Athens, Alcibiades engineers a return to the city.

Alcibiades is a curious figure as he is both a competent leader and motivated by personal interests. In later events not covered in The History of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades becomes instrumental in helping Athens recover some of its lost power and prestige between 410 and 406. However, he left the city after failing to be re-elected as a general in 406 and is believed to have died in 404, the year Athens surrendered.