Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life

The individualism observed in the four characters from Chapter 1 is not merely a reflection of contemporary norms but is rooted in diverse American cultural traditions. Brian Palmer’s shift from a focus on career success to valuing personal relationships and life enjoyment represents a transition from “utilitarian individualism” to “expressive individualism.” Joe Gorman and Wayne Bauer integrate their individualism with civic responsibility, while Margaret Oldham embodies a more defined form of Brian’s individualism.

These differences trace back to historical traditions of which the characters are largely unaware. The book sees American culture as a dynamic conversation about shared destinies, encompassing biblical hopes, republican citizenship, national aspirations, and the pursuit of liberty and wealth. The concepts of success, freedom, and justice take on varied meanings within these cultural strands, with the conversation remaining lively and the debate intense.

The biblical and republican strands of American culture have deep roots, with figures like Puritan preacher John Winthrop and Thomas Jefferson embodying these ideals. Winthrop’s vision was of a community bound by ethical and spiritual life, while Jefferson championed political equality, participation, and the fear that unbridled individualism could lead to tyranny. Both viewed success, freedom, and justice through the lens of creating an ethical society and maintaining moral freedom.

Benjamin Franklin, whose life story and maxims emphasized material success and individual self-improvement, epitomized the emergence of utilitarian individualism. However, the rise of this individualism also sparked reactions, with figures like Walt Whitman representing “expressive individualism,” where success was more about rich experiences and self-expression than material gain.

Early foreign interpretations of American culture, like those of J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur and Alexis de Tocqueville, highlight the American character as one marked by self-reliance, a disregard for social rank, and an entrepreneurial spirit. However, Tocqueville offers a more nuanced view, recognizing the importance of American mores, including religion and political participation, in maintaining a free republic. He warns of the dangers of individualistic isolation and emphasizes the role of civic associations and community life in safeguarding democracy.

These cultural strands—biblical, republican, utilitarian individualism, and expressive individualism—provide a backdrop against which contemporary American life unfolds, influencing the notions of success, freedom, and justice, and shaping the ongoing debate about American character and destiny.

Joe Gorman’s vision of community-focused living reflects the image of the American town portrayed by Tocqueville. This ideal, representing the moral heart of the town, channels individual energies into collective well-being but can also suppress nonconformity. It faces challenges from the expanding, dynamic nature of the American character, shaped by inherited values and the frontier’s challenges.

The authors argue that the concept of a representative character, more than a collection of individual traits, embodies the public image and ideal life vision for a society. Tocqueville’s America symbolized this in the independent citizen, a figure shaped by biblical and republican traditions but increasingly influenced by the utilitarian individualism epitomized by Benjamin Franklin. Embodying the noblest traits of this era, Abraham Lincoln captured the public imagination not just as a public theologian or democratic philosopher but as a self-made figure rising from humble beginnings to significant power.

As society evolved, the representative character shifted, reflecting societal transformations and the emergence of industrial world power. The entrepreneur, embodying freedom and success, emerged as a new American character but also contributed to the creation of the modern industrial context. The bureaucracy of business corporations led to a new social form, transforming traditional local societies into a national market and altering the idea of American citizenship.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of the manager and the therapist as representative characters in American culture. These figures, set against the backdrop of bureaucratic consumer capitalism, focused on the autonomy of the individual and the notion of life as a series of sectoral negotiations. The manager focuses on organizational success in the marketplace, while the therapist emphasizes internal resources and personal satisfaction.

The culture of the manager and therapist, though offering liberation and fulfillment, also reveals ambiguities and challenges in balancing individual needs with societal expectations. While reflecting a continuity with earlier American cultural forms, this culture differs by treating normative commitments as strategies for self-fulfillment rather than moral imperatives.

Sociological studies like those by Robert and Helen Lynd, David Riesman, and Herve Varenne have explored the transformations in American character and society, documenting the decline of the culture of the independent citizen in the face of rising utilitarian and expressive individualism. These studies highlight the complexities and ambiguities in the evolving American character and the tension between individual aspirations and societal norms.

Today, the cultural hegemony of the managerial and therapeutic ethos faces challenges from those marginalized by economic affluence or critical of its moral shortcomings. Forms of the ideal of the independent citizen, such as the concerned citizen, civic volunteer, and movement activist, illustrate the ongoing relevance of biblical and republican traditions in American politics, revealing a complex tradition behind the individualistic language of contemporary figures like Brian Palmer, Margaret Oldham, Joe Gorman, and Wayne Bauer.