Dead Wake: The Last Crossing Of The Lusitania

“Everything had to be done in such a manner that none of the passengers, whether in first class or third, would be aware of the nature and extent of the week’s travail. The needs of passengers were paramount, as the Cunard manual made clear.” 

On board the Cunard Steamship Company’s ships, protocol stipulates that the crew’s priority is to ensure that passengers have a smooth sailing experience. This means that all of the ship’s operations, as well as any potentially dangerous incidents that occur during the ship’s journey, are kept hidden from passengers.

“Surface ships usually traveled in groups and, given the height of their masts, could stay in contact with their bases; U-boats traveled solo and lost contact sooner, typically after sailing only a couple of hundred miles. Once at sea, a U-boat captain was free to conduct his patrol in whatever manner suited him, without supervision from above.” 

U-boats vastly differ from traditional naval ships, particularly because they operate in isolation rather than in groups. As a result, U-boats transform the nature of naval combat, especially since decisions like whether a U-boat should attack a ship are completely decided by the U-boat’s captain

“There were cruel boats and chivalrous boats, lazy boats and energetic boats. Some captains made no attempt to save the lives of merchant seamen; others went so far as to tow lifeboats toward land.” 

Because U-boats operate in isolation, each one behaves remarkably differently according to the “personality” of its captain. Such differences in personality could determine whether an attacked ship’s crew is rescued or left stranded at sea. 

“All these discomforts were borne, moreover, against a backdrop of always present danger, with everyone aware they faced the worst kind of death imaginable: slow suffocation in a darkened steel tube at the bottom of the sea.” 

Working on a U-boat is an uncomfortable post due to the U-boat’s cramped quarters and poor air circulation. Larson argues that such discomfort is only worsened by the constant danger of attack, which could leave a U-boat’s crew stranded on the ocean floor.

“But in the case of a ship as large as the Lusitania, there simply was not enough room for all the Class A boats that would be necessary. The collapsibles, however, could be tucked underneath and lowered from the same davits after the regular boats were launched; in theory, they could also float free when a ship sank.” 

While Class A lifeboats are preferable in emergencies, ships as large as the Lusitania are unable to carry enough of these boats for their passengers. Instead, the Lusitania mostly carries so-called “collapsibles,” which are canvas lifeboats that can be folded up and stored. While far more collapsibles can be stored on a ship, collapsibles have to be unpacked before use. This increases the chance that a collapsible will malfunction during an emergency.

“The war had created shortages of labor in every industry, but especially shipping, with the Royal Navy drawing off thousands of able-bodied seamen. What made raising a crew even harder for Turner was the fact that the Cunard’s original deal with the Admiralty required that all the ship’s officers and at least three-quarters of its crew had to be British subjects.” 

Because the British navy needs a large amount of manpower for the war, there is a lack of capable men available to work as the Lusitania’s crew. As a result, Turner has to rely on hiring inexperienced sailors for his crew. These sailors are far inferior to the “sturdy and capable” sailors that Turner usually employs (70). 

“The [customs] squad conducted its inspection quickly, and Malone issued to Captain Turner a ‘Certificate of Loading,’ which allowed him to take the ship to sea, though Malone later conceded it was a ‘physical impossibility’ to check every parcel of cargo.” 

American law requires that all British navy ships be closely inspected to ensure that they are not carrying arms or ammo for the war, an act that would put American passengers in danger. While customs agents inspect the Lusitania, they are only able to inspect a small portion of the ship’s overall cargo. The agents are unaware of the large amounts of ammo contained in the cargo.

“[Spiritual medium] Alta [Piper] seemed to share her mother’s gift, for throughout that Friday night, as she claimed later, she heard a voice telling her, ‘If you get into your berth, you’ll never get out.’” 

Throughout Dead Wake, Larson frequently tells small anecdotes from the lives of the Lusitania’s passengers to build narrative tension. In this anecdote, Larson describes the premonitions of the would-be passenger Alta Piper, which cause her to not board the Lusitania. Larson uses the anecdote to foreshadow the Lusitania’s impending destruction. 

“If the British navy acted in response to every foretold movement of the German fleet, it risked revealing to Germany that its codes had been broken. In a secret internal memorandum, Admiral Oliver wrote that ‘the risk of compromising the codes ought only to be taken when the result would be worth it.’”

One of Britain’s chief strategic advantages during the war is Room 40, a highly secretive division of the military that is devoted to intercepting and decoding German communications. However, Britain cannot act on this intercepted communication too often without also alerting Germany to the espionage. As a result, British naval officers must frequently ignore planned attacks to ensure the integrity of the codes.

“When it came to wireless, all [U-boats] were talkative, as Room 40 and Blinker Hall were delighted to learn. They used their wireless systems incessantly.” 

The commanders of U-boats make frequent use of the submarines’ wireless communications. Unbeknownst to them, however, such “talkative[ness]” allows the U-boats to be closely tracked by Britain’s Room 40. As a result, the operators in Room 40 are often able to determine the identity of a U-boat from its communications and movements. 

“Even those who had seen the warning paid little attention. The idea that Germany would dare attempt to sink a fully loaded civilian passenger ship seemed beyond rational consideration.” 

On the day of the Lusitania’s departure, Germany releases a warning in newspapers that passengers who sail on British ships are in danger of attack. Most of the Lusitania’s passengers, however, believe that the warning is an empty threat. They also believe that the Lusitania’s size makes it impervious to attack and that British naval ships will escort the Lusitania to safety once it enters British waters. These two beliefs are later proved erroneous when the Lusitania is sunk. 

“But Room 40 and those officials privy to the Mystery knew much more: that the German wireless station at Norddeich was broadcasting the Lusitania’s schedule and that the six newly dispatched U-boats were now en route.” 

As the Lusitania begins its voyage, Room 40 intercepts communications from the Germans revealing that the German navy is closely monitoring the Lusitania’s route. Though this is a clear sign that the Lusitania is at risk of attack, Room 40 does not warn the Lusitania of the danger or instruct it to change its course.

“A neutral in time of international war must always show forbearance, but never in the course of history have the patience and forbearance of neutrals been put to so severe a test as today.” 

This quote by Undersecretary of State Robert Lansing demonstrates the United States’ growing ambivalence about remaining neutral in the war in Europe. Many Americans believe that an advantage of their geographic isolation is their ability to keep out of the conflicts that embroil Europe. However, as news of the ongoing war grows increasingly gruesome, American officials such as Lansing and President Woodrow Wilson begin to question their steadfast neutrality. 

“By the time Bernard made this charge, he had come to understand what few others seemed to grasp, which was that on this particular voyage, given the convergence of disparate forces, timing was everything. Even the briefest delay could shape history.” 

This quote refers to a complaint made by Oliver Bernard, who is upset that Captain Turner delays the Lusitania’s departure by inviting his niece to board the ship. Larson argues that exact timing plays an important role in the Lusitania’s sinking. Schedule changes of even an hour could have meant that the Lusitania never crossed paths with the U-20, which would have saved it from destruction. 

“Now came ‘the blind moment,’ as commanders called it, that dismayingly long interval just before the periscope broke the surface.” 

In this quote, Larson describes one of the major vulnerabilities of manning a U-boat. When a U-boat surfaces, it cannot see whether enemy ships are on the ocean’s surface until its periscope breaches the ocean’s surface. As a result, every time a U-boat travels to the surface, it places itself in danger. 

“No ocean-going British merchant vessel is permitted to go to the assistance of a ship which has been torpedoed by a submarine.” 

This quote comes from a set of instructions given to merchant ships by the British admiralty, informing captains what to do during a submarine attack. The instructions forbid merchant ships from engaging in rescue missions because the Admiralty fears that submarines that launch attacks could linger and launch other attacks. As a result, passengers and crews aboard ships like the Lusitania are essentially stranded after a submarine attack. 

“[New naval rules] meant that civilian freighters and liners sailing to Liverpool could henceforth avoid the Western Approaches altogether and sail instead over the top of Ireland, then turn right and go south to Liverpool. Admiral Webb did not transmit this new information to Cunard or the Lusitania.” 

Throughout Dead Wake, Larson traces the many ways that the British Admiralty could have saved the Lusitania from destruction. During the Lusitania’s journey, the British Admiralty decides to re-open a shipping route running from the north of Ireland to Liverpool. Though the Admiralty is aware that U-boats are stationed along the Lusitania’s planned route to Liverpool, the Admiralty does not order the Lusitania to use this alternate route. This order would have kept the Lusitania from crossing paths with the U-20. 

“Edith’s rejection caused Wilson great sorrow and left him feeling almost disoriented as world events clamored for his attention.” 

While the war continues in Europe, President Wilson is continually preoccupied by personal crises. First his wife dies and then he develops an unrequired love for Edith Galt. Larson suggests that Wilson’s despair over Galt distracts him from his presidential duties, keeping him from maintaining a clear mind amidst ongoing global conflict. 

“Churchill wrote that it was ‘most important to attract neutral shipping to our shores, in the hopes especially of embroiling the United States with Germany.’ Though no one said it explicitly, Britain hoped the United States would at some point feel moved to join the Allies, and in so doing rip the balance irrevocably in their favor.”

Winston Churchill is dismayed that the United States refuses to join the war and assist Britain in defeating Germany. Larson suggests that Britain’s lack of protection for the Lusitania might actually have been planned by Churchill, who hoped that an attack would force the United States to cease its neutral status and join Britain as an ally in the war. 

“It was here, during intermission, that Turner stepped forward to offer his sobering remarks about submarines and the war zone and assured the audience they would soon be securely in the embrace of the Royal Navy.” 

On the final evening of the Lusitania’s voyage, Turner receives a message about submarine activity near the Irish coast. When warning the passengers about the message, Turner repeats the false belief that British naval ships will protect the Lusitania when it enters British waters. Such a statement reveals that Turner is operating on misinformation, falsely believing that the Lusitania will soon be out of danger. 

“The message was apparently the product of [Cunard Steamship Company] Chairman [Alfred] Booth’s plea, but it fell short of what he had asked for. Only eighteen words long, it conveyed no details about what had occurred over the previous twenty-four hours.” 

After the Cunard Steamship Company’s chairman learns that multiple ships have been sunk by the U-20, he implores the navy to warn the Lusitania of the danger. While the navy complies, it only sends a vaguely worded warning to Captain Turner, describing submarine activity in the ocean without directly informing him that multiple ships have already been attacked and sunk. 

“Survivors drifted—in the water, on boats, on pieces of wreckage—for three hours, in hopes that rescuers were on their way. Had the Juno come, the wait would have been far shorter, the chances of survival much higher.” 

Though a large ocean liner, the Juno, is in a port near the sinking Lusitania, the Admiralty orders the Juno not to go on a rescue mission, fearing that the ship will be attacked if it does. As a result, survivors are forced to float in the icy cold ocean waters for hours before rescue ships arrive. Many of the survivors, particularly children, develop hypothermia and die as they float in the sea. 

“In the end, Schwieger’s attack on the Lusitania succeeded because of a chance confluence of forces. Even the tiniest alteration in a single vector could have saved the ship.” 

Larson argues that the attack on the Lusitania is largely due to a series of chance decisions that caused the U-20 and the Lusitania to cross paths. A number of seemingly irrelevant factors, from the Lusitania’s delayed departure to the timing of the fog’s dissipation, converged to ensure the Lusitania’s eventual destruction.