Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin

Snyder traces the origins of the Nazi and Soviet regimes to the aftermath of World War I, highlighting how the conflict transformed Europe’s political and economic landscape. The war dismantled old empires, spurred nationalist movements, and disrupted the global economy, laying the groundwork for radical ideologies to take root. The Bolshevik Revolution, led by Lenin with the vision of a communist utopia, emerged from the ruins of the Russian Empire, exploiting the war’s chaos for a Marxist-inspired overhaul of society. Similarly, the defeat and disillusionment in Germany created fertile ground for extremist ideologies, with Hitler and the Nazi party eventually rising to power by exploiting economic despair and nationalist sentiment.

The Introduction underscores the profound impact of the First World War in breaking down the old order and setting the stage for totalitarian regimes to emerge. Both Hitler and Stalin saw opportunities in the post-war chaos to implement their radical visions for their countries, leading to policies that would have devastating effects on the populations of the Soviet Union, Germany, and the territories caught between them, particularly Ukraine. The narrative sets the stage for understanding the deep-seated conflicts and ambitions that would lead to some of the 20th century’s most catastrophic events, emphasizing the intersection of political power, economic upheaval, and ideological fervor that enabled both leaders to enact their transformative and destructive policies.

The first chapter details the events of 1933, a year marked by widespread hunger not just in the capitalist West, but also in Soviet Ukraine, where the situation was dire. Gareth Jones, a Welsh journalist, witnessed the devastating impact of famine firsthand, observing the despair of those queuing for bread in Soviet cities and the countryside’s desolation. Despite the Soviet government’s boast of a thriving system, millions in Ukraine were starving, a contrast to the regime’s denial and suppression of the famine’s reality.

The famine was a consequence of Stalin’s First Five-Year Plan, which enforced rapid industrialization at the expense of the peasantry. Collectivization policies, aimed at consolidating individual farms into collective ones, led to widespread resistance, resulting in brutal repression, executions, and mass deportations. The state’s seizure of grain and livestock left the peasantry destitute, with no means to sustain themselves, leading to widespread suffering.

Stalin’s policies not only demanded impossible grain quotas from the starving population but also implemented measures to prevent the migration of peasants seeking food, effectively trapping them in a death sentence. As the famine worsened, the Soviet regime continued to export grain, rejecting international aid, and suppressing information about the catastrophe. This denial of the famine, coupled with policies specifically targeting Ukrainian peasants, indicates a deliberate act of repression that some scholars, including Rafael Lemkin, later recognized as a form of genocide.

Eyewitness accounts from Jones and others, contrasted with the Soviet government’s propaganda and international denial, highlight the tragedy’s enormity. The famine not only decimated the Ukrainian peasantry but also deeply scarred the national consciousness, reshaping the demographic and cultural landscape of Soviet Ukraine. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the Soviet regime’s cruelty and the world’s failure to acknowledge or respond to one of the 20th century’s greatest human disasters.

Snyder explores the tumultuous era marked by Stalin’s collectivization policies in the Soviet Union and Hitler’s rise to power in Germany. This period was characterized by the drastic consolidation of power by totalitarian leaders through policies that led to widespread suffering and terror. Jones provided a unique perspective on the simultaneous consolidation of power by Hitler and Stalin, having traveled with Hitler and witnessed the dire consequences of Stalin’s collectivization in the Soviet Union.

Collectivization under Stalin involved the forced consolidation of individual farms into collective ones, which led to a massive famine and the deaths of millions. This policy was enforced through extreme violence, including the shooting and deportation of tens of thousands. Stalin’s regime was marked by intense surveillance, violence, and purges, targeting not just the peasantry but also perceived political and social enemies within the Soviet Union. The scale of violence and oppression during Stalin’s rule was immense, with hundreds of thousands executed and millions more affected by famine and deportation.

Meanwhile, in Germany, Hitler’s rise to power transformed the political landscape through the manipulation of fear, propaganda, and the suppression of opposition. The Reichstag fire was a pivotal event that Hitler exploited to demonize communists and consolidate his power, leading to the suspension of civil liberties and the establishment of the first Nazi concentration camp at Dachau. Hitler’s campaign against the Jews began with economic boycotts and escalated to more severe forms of persecution.

The chapter also explores the international ramifications of Stalin’s and Hitler’s policies, including the shaping of European political alignments and the impact on international perceptions of communism and fascism. Stalin’s policies inadvertently aided Hitler’s rise by preventing a unified opposition among the German left, while Hitler leveraged the famine in the Soviet Union as a critique of communism to consolidate his own power.

Chapter 3 discusses the grim reality of national terror under Stalin’s regime in the late 1930s, focusing on the ethnic persecutions that culminated in the mass executions of Soviet citizens, particularly targeting national minorities such as the Poles. The chapter outlines the ideological backdrop of Stalin’s Five-year Plans, which, contrary to their supposed aim of fostering national cultures under socialism, led to unparalleled national persecutions. The narrative highlights the tragic irony of the Soviet Union’s portrayal as a bastion of tolerance even as Stalin orchestrated the mass killings of several Soviet nationalities, with Soviet Poles bearing the brunt of this brutal campaign.

Stalin’s policies, under the guise of combating espionage and sabotage, falsely accused national minorities, especially the Poles, of being enemies of the state. The rationale for these persecutions was fabricated during the 1933 famine, where Stalin’s officials concocted the existence of a “Polish Military Organization” allegedly responsible for acts of sabotage and espionage. This baseless claim served as the pretext for the extensive repression and execution of Soviet Poles, illustrating Stalin’s method of exploiting non-existent threats to justify national terror.

The chapter details the process of how Stalin’s regime identified and persecuted individuals based on ethnicity, leading to mass arrests, deportations, and executions. The operations against the Poles and other national minorities were not only a manifestation of Stalin’s ruthless suppression but also a reflection of the broader dynamics of power, paranoia, and political manipulation within the Soviet Union. The terror was not limited to the accused individuals; it extended to their families and communities, leaving a lasting impact on the social and cultural fabric of the Soviet Union.

By examining the scale and mechanics of the national terror, the chapter sheds light on the broader implications of Stalin’s policies for the Soviet Union and its people. It underscores the tragic irony of a regime that, under the banner of socialism and internationalism, perpetrated some of the most heinous acts of ethnic cleansing and mass murder in the 20th century. The narrative serves as a reminder of the devastating consequences of political ideologies when wielded as tools of oppression and terror.