A History of Western Philosophy

Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1945

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Book 1, Part 3Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Part 3: “Ancient Philosophy after Aristotle”

Chapter 25 Summary: “The Hellenistic World”

This chapter consists mainly of general historical background. In the third century BCE, Alexander the Great “transformed the Greek world” (218) by conquering neighboring territories and spreading Greek culture far and wide. This contact with other cultures affected Greek philosophy, making it more “cosmopolitan” and receptive to other influences. These influences included the Buddhist religion, with its highly mystical attitudes. Other religious cults, such as Orphism, also became popular as a result of Alexander’s conquests and paved the way for the acceptance of Christianity a few centuries later.

Gradually, the age of the Greek city state was followed by the age of the Greek empire. In the midst of frequent political turmoil, the formerly leisurely way of life gave way to a “struggle for existence” and “prolonged uncertainty.” Metaphysics became less important than ethics or the art of “every-day virtues.” The era of highly original Greek thought—the era of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—ended and the period of Hellenism began.

Chapter 26 Summary: “Cynics and Sceptics”

After the demise of the Greek city state, Greek thinkers began to turn away from political questions and concentrate on questions of the soul, virtue, and cosmic reality. This inward turn gave rise to two new schools of philosophy. The philosophical school of the Cynics was founded by Diogenes, who embraced poverty and a simple lifestyle devoid of comfort. He was also notorious for shunning social conventions. He taught that peace can be found by being free from all desire and passions. His ideas would later influence the Stoics. The other school, Scepticism, was founded by Pyrrho, who proclaimed the impossibility of attaining certain knowledge or truth. He argued that the best course of action to follow is to “enjoy the present.” Sceptics espoused “dogmatic doubt,” denying the very possibility of knowledge; as such, they anticipated and influenced later skeptical movements in Western philosophy.

Chapter 27 Summary: “The Epicureans”

The Epicurean school was founded by Epicurus (341-270 BCE). Epicurus followed a spartan lifestyle, somewhat like Diogenes, and was of a “gentle and kindly” temperament. He identified the good with pleasure, “the beginning and end of the blessed life” (243). The good life consisted in pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain. Epicurus believed that all people act from self-interest, but friendship is a great good. Epicureanism remained popular for several centuries but was eventually rejected as inadequate for solving the great problems of humanity. Christianity eventually won out by placing human good beyond this life, thus directly reversing Epicurus’s doctrines.

Chapter 28 Summary: “Stoicism”

Stoicism originated at around the same time as Epicureanism. It was founded by Zeno of Citium (c. 335-c. 263 BCE) and taught that serenity can be found through acceptance of the natural order of things and the realization that we need not worry about what is beyond our power. Thus, “every man has perfect freedom, provided he emancipates himself from mundane desires” (255). Stoicism was extremely influential, even moreso in Rome than in Greece. Seneca and the emperor Marcus Aurelius are among its later adherents. Stoicism also influenced Christian thought.

Chapter 29 Summary: “The Roman Empire in Relation to Culture”

This chapter again consists of historical background. Rome gradually rose to become the dominant world power, but adopted much of Greek culture and learning. Russell discusses four ways that the Roman Empire affected the history of culture:

The direct effect of Rome on Greek thought
The influence of Greece and the East in Rome
The unification of government and culture
The Muslims as vehicles of Hellenism (Russell uses the term “Mohammedans” throughout the book)

Chapter 30 Summary: “Plotinus”

Plotinus (205-270 CE) is considered by Russell “the last of the great philosophers of antiquity” (284). He established Neoplatonism, a revival and extension of the philosophy of Plato. Plotinus’s thought is based on the contemplation of “an eternal world of goodness and beauty” (284) and formed an important influence on early Christian thought. Neoplatonism is based on the idea that all things emanate from the One. The One forms a trinity along with Spirit and Soul, but the One is supreme. The souls of human beings exist even before their bodies do, with the soul fitting into the appropriate body at a person’s birth. The soul is therefore eternal Essence and as such is imperishable. In many ways, Plotinus forms a bridge from classical to Christian thought.

Book 1, Part 3 Analysis

This section explains what happened to Greek philosophy after the “golden age” of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. In Russell’s account, there was a gradual breakup of the philosophical tradition represented by those three thinkers and the development of new currents of thought that would inform the postclassical world. The major point Russell makes in this section—as he does in different ways throughout the book—is that philosophy does not happen in a vacuum: It often reflects the mood of the times and is influenced by social conditions. Moreover, political power is often necessary for ideas to spread.

Indeed, politics and war play a major part in this narrative. After Alexander the Great conquered vast territories on behalf of Greece, Greek culture spread far and wide, but the Greek city state declined. Eventually, Rome succeeded Greece as the major world power. According to Russell, a mood of pessimism and disillusionment spread in Greek society, and this is reflected in the new forms of philosophy that developed in this period. The two extremes were represented by Epicureanism, which sought pleasure in this life, and Stoicism, which stressed detachment from earthly desires. The philosophy of Plotinus, too, was otherworldly and predicated on a contemplation of timeless ideals.

In addition, religious cults from the Middle East which taught about death, rebirth, and salvation satisfied people’s need for hope and a larger meaning to life. Russell sees these philosophies and religions as preparing favorable ground for the spread of Christianity, which took place in the first few centuries CE. In Russell’s interpretation, all these movements reflect a hopelessness about finding happiness in this life and an interest in the possibility of an afterlife or a mystical union with the eternal and divine.

Russell gives a remarkably positive assessment of Plotinus as the last great Greek philosopher, whose mystical worldview formed a bridge to Christian thought (284). Russell’s approval of Plotinus contrasts with his generally unfavorable view of mysticism in philosophy as expressed elsewhere in the book. According to Russell, there has been throughout philosophy’s history a contrast between concentrating on the world of inner feelings and ideas and turning outward to examine the external world empirically. Generally, Russell favors the latter view as tending toward scientific perspectives, yet his treatment of Plotinus shows that he is open to non-rationalistic types of philosophy.